William A. Therivel 82 ntroduction I There is a strong, developmental

W i l l i a m A. Therivel
82
RINASCIMENTO A N D SIGLO DE ORO AS " S W A N S O N G S " :
OF SWANS OPPRESSED BY THE UNITY OF POWER
I
ntroduction
There is a strong, d e v e l o p m e n t a l parallelism b e t w e e n the literary
history of Italy and Spain, and this both in terms of " r e s u l t s " : quantity,
quality, nature of the texts, a n d of " c a u s e s " : first a w a r of liberation,
then oppression by the unity of p o w e r , and finally a partial return to
liberty. F o c u s i n g , on the s e c o n d p h a s e of the o p p r e s s i o n , the central
e l e m e n t s of the literary parallelism are, on o n e side, the Italian
Rinascimento of 1 4 5 0 - 1 5 5 0 / 1 6 0 0 , and, on the other, the S p a n i s h Siglo
de Oro of 1 5 5 0 - 1 6 5 0 . B o t h e p o c h s w e r e extraordinarily rich in
m a s t e r w o r k s , m a n y of t h e m of a skeptical, pessimistic, e v e n cynical
nature. H o w e v e r , after those extraordinary years, h i g h literary creativity
w e n t d o r m a n t for quite a w h i l e . T h e v e r y high quality of the w o r k s
p r o d u c e d in those times, their skeptical a n d pessimistic n a t u r e , a n d the
sharp decline of creativity afterwards, suggest that b o t h e p o c h s be seen
(in parallel with other m o r e classical interpretations) as " s w a n s o n g s " in
a c c o r d a n c e with Plato's description, in Phaedo, of the w o n d e r f u l
singing of the s w a n s w h e n they p e r c e i v e that they m u s t die,
A n d w h o w e r e those s w a n s ? In Italy, to list the greatest in
chronological order:
B o i a r d o , Poliziano, M a c h i a v e l l i ,
Ariosto,
Castiglione, Guicciardini; a n d in Spain: Luis de L e o n , C e r v a n t e s ,
A l e m a n , G ó n g o r a , L o p e d e V e g a , Tirso d e M o l i n a , Q u e v e d o , C a l d e r ó n
de la Barca. After t h e m , in Italy, we h a v e to wait until the 18th a n d
19th centuries to e n c o u n t e r again writers of h i g h caliber: G o l d o n i ,
Alfieri, M a n z o n i , L e o p a r d i , C a r d u c c i , Pascoli, S v e v o , D ' A n n u n z i o , a n d
until the second half of the 19th century for the birth of a writer of
international stature: Pirandello. Similarly, in Spain, we h a v e to w a i t
until the 19th century for B é c q u e r , P é r e z G a l d ó s , Clarin, V a l l e - I n c l a n ,
Pio Baroia, Azorin, M a c h a d o , J i m é n e z , A l e i x a n d r e - and until the end
Rinascimento and Siglo de Oro as " S w a n S o n g s "
83
of the c e n t u r y for the birth of a writer of international stature: G a r c i a
Lorca.
In this, Italy and Spain are in sharp contrast with F r a n c e and Britain
w h i c h w e r e highly creative all along, a n d in contrast w i t h G e r m a n y a n d
Russia w h i c h started late b u t then rapidly p r o d u c e d major literary
m a s t e r w o r k s . B e c a u s e of these similarities a n d differences ( o b v i o u s l y
partial), o n e m a y tentatively speak of an Italian/Spanish d e v e l o p m e n t a l
m o d e l , of a French/British m o d e l , and of a G e r m a n / R u s s i a n m o d e l .
S o m e t h i n g special h a p p e n e d in Italy a n d Spain w h i c h p r e p a r e d the
basis for such a wonderful p e a k of literary creativity. T h e n the situation
c h a n g e d . This, at first e x p a n d e d by m u c h the creativity, giving it its
skeptical a n d pessimistic nature ( s w a n s o n g s ) ; then, r e d u c e d it a n d for
so long. T h a t s o m e t h i n g special at the b e g i n n i n g - w h i c h Spain a n d
Italy h a d in c o m m o n , and w h i c h other E u r o p e a n nations did not h a v e w a s a long Reconquista: by the Spaniards against the M o o r s , and by the
Italians against the G e r m a n s . T h e r e is, indeed, in each country, a m o s t
m e m o r a b l e battle of liberation: C o v a d o n g a of 718 against the M o o r s ,
and L e g n a n o of 1176 against the G e r m a n s .
Essential and a d m i r a b l e , is the p r o f o u n d c h a n g e of mentality w h i c h
w a s b r o u g h t about by each reconquista, a c h a n g e w h i c h c a m e less by
participation in battles than by thinking a b o u t the m o t i v a t i o n s a n d
justifications of the m a n y p o w e r s at war. In Spain it w a s , s u m m a r i l y
said, a w a r b e t w e e n Christianity and Islam, in Italy b e t w e e n the p a p a c y
and the c o m m u n e s on o n e side and the G e r m a n e m p e r o r s on the other.
In b o t h countries, p e o p l e learned to profit from these great divisions
and battles, and m a n y m e n and w o m e n g r e w into lively and strong
personalities, as those of El Cid in Spain, and of D a n t e in Italy , t h e r e b y
creating, an o p e n e n v i r o n m e n t , a society w h i c h w a s healthy a n d self
a s s u r e d " ( B r e n a n ) . In both countries, the s w a n song w a s p r e c e d e d a n d
p r e p a r e d by a long creative period with w o r k s , in the m a i n , of a
positive and optimistic nature, as those of Lull, R u i z , Santillana in
Spain, of the author(s) of the Novellino, of D a n t e , B o c c a c c i o , Sacchetti
1
2
To whom one can immediately add Beatrice Portinari, Francesca da Rimini
and Farinata degli Uberti (who "Com'avesse l'inferno a gran dispitto"),
described by Dante, and Ser Ciappelletto, the Marchioness of Monferrato, and
Federigo degli Alberighi and monna Giovanna (this last, so admirable when she
said to her brothers: "Ma io voglio avanti uomo che abbia bisogno di ricchezza,
che ricchezza che abbia bisogno d'uomo"), described by Boccaccio, as well as
ser Mazzeo, Percittadino da Linari and Castruccio Interminelli, described by
Sacchetti.
Gerald Brenan, The Literature of the Spanish People, Cleveland: World
Publishing, 1957, p. 49.
1
2
W i l l i a m A. Therivel
84
in Italy. T h e s e literary exploits w e n t a l o n g w i t h m u c h creativity in
t e c h n o l o g y , c o m m e r c e , administration, religion and c o m m u n i t y affairs.
W h a t then w e n t w r o n g ? T h e a n s w e r is that the political, social a n d
p s y c h o l o g i c a l climate c h a n g e d for the w o r s e : there w a s a m a s s i v e
increase of the unity of power and derived o p p r e s s i o n on n e a r l y
e v e r y b o d y . This m e a n t , in Italy, the o p p r e s s i v e p o w e r of the p o p e s , of
the signori, of the foreigners, and of the C o u n t e r - R e f o r m a t i o n . Italy
h a d flourished, in every field, as long as the p o p e s fought against the
G e r m a n e m p e r o r s , and as long as the p o p e s looked at c o m m u n e s and
the city-republics as their natural allies in their w a r against the e m p i r e .
Indeed, it w a s t h a n k s to the organizing ability a n d leadership of P o p e
A l e x a n d e r III that the L o m b a r d L e a g u e could defeat F r e d e r i c k
B a r b a r o s s a at L e g n a n o in 1176. It w a s as ally of the p a p a c y that
F l o r e n c e prospered. But with the final victory of the p a p a c y o v e r the
H o h e n s t a u f e n , at the Battle of B e n e v e n t o of 1226, the p a p a l strategy
c h a n g e d : the p o p e s , b a c k e d b y their n e w allies, t h e F r e n c h , t u r n e d
against c o m m u n e s and city-republics, against F l o r e n c e in particular. In
1302, for five terrible d a y s , F l o r e n c e w a s given o v e r to p l u n d e r , arson,
and violence at the h a n d of the Black Guelfs b a c k e d by C h a r l e s of
Valois w h o had b e e n sent there as " p e a c e - m a k e r " by P o p e B o n i f a c e
VIII in his attempt to annex Florence to the papal d o m a i n s and, in the
p r o c e s s , enrich his family, the Caetani. T h e n t h r o u g h o u t the y e a r an
o r g a n i z e d reign of terror held the city in its grip. " T w o s u c c e s s i v e
p o d e s t à s p r o n o u n c e d f i v e h u n d r e d and f i f t y - n i n e d e a t h s e n t e n c e s b y
either h a n g i n g , decapitation, or the fagot. If in their vast majority the
verdicts w e r e not executed, it w a s only b e c a u s e , like D a n t e , the
intended victims h a d saved t h e m s e l v e s by flight. T h e unqualified
s u p r e m a c y of the Florentine B l a c k s - such w a s the net result of the
interference o f P o p e B o n i f a c e " ( S c h e v i l l ) .
3
G r a d u a l l y , the situation w o r s e n e d . In the treaty of B a r c e l o n a of
1529, P o p e C l e m e n t VII M e d i c i obtained from e m p e r o r C h a r l e s V the
p r o m i s e to crush republican F l o r e n c e and give the city b a c k to the
M e d i c i . T h u s , in the s u m m e r of 1529 the imperial t r o o p s attacked the
city w h i c h s u r r e n d e r e d on A u g u s t 12, 1530 after long a n d ferocious
fighting. T h e n e w ruler w a s A l e s s a n d r o de M e d i c i , a m u l a t t o w h o , as
part o f the pact b e t w e e n e m p e r o r and p o p e , w a s m a r r i e d t o M a r g a r e t ,
the illegitimate d a u g h t e r of Charles V a n d Joan van der G h e y n s t . " A s
for A l e s s a n d r o , unlettered, p e r v e r s e , and d e b a u c h e d , he r e i g n e d by
Ferdinand Schevill, History of Florence:From the Founding of the City
Through the Renaissance, London: G. Bell and Sons, 1961, pp. 174-75.
3
Rinascimento a n d Siglo de Oro as " S w a n S o n g s "
85
terror o v e r a city that resigned itself to its fate" ( J o u r c i n ) . In 1537,
A l e s s a n d r o w a s assassinated b y his cousin L o r e n z i n o , and the n e w
ruler w a s C o s i m o d e M e d i c i , w h o m m a n y p e o p l e c a m e t o think o f " a s
the incarnation of Machiavelli's principe in the entirely u n s c r u p u l o u s
and pitiless furtherance of his a i m s " ( C l e u g h ) . In 1600, the P a p a l
s u p r e m a c y burnt G i o r d a n o B r u n o alive, his t o n g u e in a gag, a n d in
1633 it forced Galileo to recant in the m o s t humiliating w a y .
In Spain the t r a g e d y w a s d u e to an ever increasing unity of p o w e r of
State a n d C h u r c h , after the kings took control of the C h u r c h . T h e
p r o b l e m , in Spain, w a s that the quasi B y z a n t i n e s y m b i o s i s of c r o w n
a n d altar h a d long roots, as far b a c k as V i s i g o t h i c t i m e s . T h e r e w a s a
p r e c e d e n t and a m o d e l for later kings of Spain to d e m a n d from the
C h u r c h the s a m e services o f old ( a m o n g these, k e e p i n g p e o p l e u n d e r
control); and for the C h u r c h to cooperate willingly: " T w e n t y fathers of
the Inquisition k e e p my r e a l m s in p e a c e " , K i n g Philip II o n c e said.
" Y e s " , [noted S à n c h e z - A l b o r n o z ] , " b u t in a p e a c e w h i c h , for centuries,
lethargized the p h i l o s o p h i c and scientific life of S p a i n " . T h e n , also,
b e c a u s e the royal favor " w a s the best w a y to w i n , the S p a n i a r d s b e c a m e
u s e d to expect everything from a revered State, from a t h a u m a t u r g i c ,
providential State. E v e n the C h u r c h p a n i c k e d every t i m e she felt she
w a s losing the protection of the S t a t e " ( B e n n a s s a r ) .
4
5
6
7
In Spain, since Visigothic times, " T h e C h u r c h w a s protected, e v e n
cosseted, by the State: but it w a s a captive C h u r c h . . . T h e S p a n i s h
Inquisition w a s essentially an organ of royal p o w e r , o n e of w h o s e
functions w a s to " p r o t e c t " the Spanish C h u r c h from influences by
outside agencies, including the p a p a c y " ( J o h n s o n ) . T h i s strong control
over the C h u r c h , and exclusion of papal influences differentiates the
history of Spain from that of G e r m a n y , F r a n c e , E n g l a n d . T h e c r o w n
insisted on its right to scrutinize papal bulls, and if n e c e s s a r y to forbid
their publication in its d o m i n i o n s : Spain w a s left at the m e r c y of its
kings.
In 1478, the Catholic M o n a r c h s , Isabel and F e r d i n a n d , o b t a i n e d a
p a p a l bull from Sixtus IV a l l o w i n g t h e m to set up the Inquisition as a
8
Albert Jourcin, "Medici Family", in Encyclopaedia Britannica, Chicago:
Encyclopaedia Britannica, 1978, 11, p. 820.
James Cleugh, The Medici, New-York: Dorset, 1975, p. 283.
Claudio Sànchez-Albornoz, España, un enigma histórico, Barcelona: Edhasa,
1991, p. 1277.
Bartolome Bennassar, Los Españoles: Actitud y Mentalidad, Barcelona:
Argos/Vergara, 1970, p. 124.
Paul Johnson, A History of Christianity,,New York: Atheneum, 1976, p. 217.
4
5
6
7
8
W i l l i a m A. Therivel
86
royal tribunal, in w h i c h all a p p o i n t m e n t s w e r e m a d e by the c r o w n .
G r a d u a l l y , the Inquisition w a s r e d u c e d to little m o r e than a d e p a r t m e n t
of state. " O f all the o b n o x i o u s features of the Inquisition, p e r h a p s the
m o s t o b n o x i o u s w a s its natural t e n d e n c y to g e n e r a t e a c l i m a t e of
mistrust a n d m u t u a l suspicion peculiarly p r o p i t i o u s for the i n f o r m e r
a n d the s p y . . . A u t h o r s , e v e n o f n o n - t h e o l o g i c a l w o r k s , w o u l d n a t u r a l l y
tend to exercise a kind of self-censorship...Alongside the o b s e s s i v e
c o n c e r n for purity of the faith there flourished a no less o b s e s s i v e
c o n c e r n with purity of blood...both h a d the effect of n a r r o w i n g the
e x t r a o r d i n a r y w i d e r a n g e of Spanish life, and forcing a rich a n d vital
society into a strait-jacket of c o n f o r m i t y " (Elliott ).
9
P a r a d o x i c a l l y , b o t h in Italy a n d in Spain, these evils did at first n o t
p r e v e n t the creation of great texts, but m a i n l y of a skeptical,
pessimistic, e v e n cynical n a t u r e , and w i t h o u t significant s u c c e s s o r s , for
a l o n g time.
Rinascimento and Siglo de Oro
T h e scepticism, p e s s i m i s m , c y n i c i s m of M a c h i a v e l l i ' s The Prince
a n d La Mandragola, of
Castiglione's The Book of the Courtier, of
Guicciardini's Ricordi are well k n o w n . " N e l l a lettera a G u i c c i a r d i n i del
17 m a g g i o 1 5 2 1 , M a c h i a v e l l i diceva di essersi già da t e m p o a d d o t t o r a t o
in fatto di m e n z o g n a : ' i o n o n dico m a i quello che io c r e d o , ne c r e d o
m a i quel che io dico, et se p u r e e' mi vien detto q u a l c h e v o l t a il v e r o , io
lo n a s c o n d o tra tante b u g i e , che è difficile a r i t r o v a r l o ' . A f f e r m a z i o n i di
q u e s t o tenore n o n p o s s o n o essere ignorate da interpreti attenti del
p e n s i e r o di Machiavelli: u n a così p r o f o n d a attitudine scettica d e v e esser
s e m p r e tenuta in conto q u a n d o si l e g g o n o p a g i n e in cui 'il v e r o ' , che
p u r sussiste, v i e n e detto s e n z a la v o l o n t à di dirlo, e p e r q u e s t o tra le
tante trappole ironiche e nichilistiche è 'difficile a r i t r o v a r l o ' " .
(Simonetta ).
10
C a s t i g l i o n e h i m s e l f k n e w that the " v i r t ù " of his courtier w o u l d
r e c e i v e little praise outside the lone s h a d e of the prince, and, for a brief
m o m e n t , he w a s willing to a d m i t it w h e n , in his b o o k , he h a d Pietro di
N a p o l i r e m a r k : " D i questi Cortegiani oggidì t r o v a r a n n o s i assai, p e r c h è
mi p a r e che in p o c h e parole ci abbiate dipinto un n o b i l e a d u l a t o r e " . In
11
Joseph H. Elliott, Imperial Spain, New York: St. Martin's Press, 1964, pp.
211-13.
Marcello Simonetta, "La lingua esiliata", Rivista di Studi Italiani XV, η. 1
(1997), pp 44-54.
11
Baldesar Castiglione, Il cortegiano, Florence: Sansoni, 1910), p. 164.
9
10
Rinascimento and Siglo de Oro as " S w a n S o n g s "
87
sharp contrast is Burckhardt's vision of h o w things w e r e before: " T h e
Italians of the fourteenth century k n e w little of false m o d e s t y , or of
h y p o c r i s y in any shape; not o n e of t h e m w a s afraid of singularity, of
b e i n g and s e e m i n g unlike his n e i g h b o u r s " .
C o u n t Castiglione, in the t e r m i n o l o g y of this article, b e c o m e s the
p r o m o t e r of a very strong moralità isolana w h e n , t h r o u g h the v o i c e of
F e d e r i c o F r e g o s o , he p r e a c h e s that " V e r o è c h e m o l t e cose p a i o n o al
p r i m o aspetto b o n e , che s o n o m a l e , e m o l t e p a i o n o m a l e e p u r son
b o n e . P e r ò è licito talor per servizio de' suoi signori a m m a z z a r e n o n un
o m o ma diece milia, e far altre cose, le quali, a chi n o n le c o n s i d e r a s s e
c o m e si dee, pareriano m a l e , e p u r n o n s o n o " . E v e n the s e e m i n g l y ,
carefree Ariosto w a s not so carefree, as noted by Italo C a l v i n o :
" [ Q u e s t o poeta] così abile nel celare se stesso; questo incredulo italiano
del C i n q u e c e n t o che trae dalla cultura r i n a s c i m e n t a l e un senso della
realtà senza illusioni e m e n t r e M a c h i a v e l l i fonda su quella stessa
n o z i o n e disincantata dell'umanità u n a d u r a scienza politica, egli si
ostina a disegnare u n a fiaba..."
12
13
14
Still, on the w h o l e century, F r a n c e s c o De Sanctis is even stricter:
" N e l l a prosa del C i n q u e c e n t o hai l'apparenza, anzi l'affettazione
dell'ossatura, la cui espressione è il p e r i o d o . Ma l'ossatura n o n è c h e
esteriore, e quel lusso di c o n g i u n z i o n i e di m e m b r i e d'incisi m a l
d i s s i m u l a il v u o t o e la dissoluzione interna. Il v u o t o n o n è
nell'intelletto, ma nella coscienza, indifferente e s c e t t i c a " .
Similar considerations apply to Spain. E m i l i o Sola C a s t a n o in his
La España de los Aus trias r e p r o d u c e d t w o m a c a b r e paintings by J u a n
de V a l d é s Leal; and, for caption, w r o t e : " T h e s e t w o c a n v a s s e s are a
splendid expression of the G o l d e n Spain:
a nation w h i c h ,
paradoxically, in the blackest of all crises, p r o d u c e d a truly u n i q u e
g e n e r a t i o n of geniuses capable of p r o d u c i n g , b e a u t y and e m o t i o n s from
the p e s s i m i s m and the daily p r o x i m i t y of d e a t h " .
T h e a n s w e r to the p a r a d o x lies in the intellectual and e m o t i o n a l
clash, in those capable to u n d e r s t a n d w h a t w a s h a p p e n i n g , of t w o sets
of m e n t a l scripts (i.e. habits, habitual w a y s of thinking, s c h e m e s ,
15
16
Jacob Burckhardt, The Civilization of the Renaissance in Italy, London: Swan
Sonnenschein, 1898, p. 130.
Castiglione, op. cit., p. 130.
Italo Calvino, Una pietra sopra, Turin: Einaudi, 1980, p. 56.
Francesco De Sanctis, Storia della letteratura italiana, a cura di Benedetto
Croce, Bari: Laterza, 1949, Vol. II, p. 78.
E m i l i o Sola C a s t a n o , La España de los Austrias, M a d r i d : A n a y a ,
1988, p p . 7 2 - 7 3 .
12
13
14
15
16
W i l l i a m A. Therivel
88_
cognitive-structural units, traditions), those of their y o u t h , a n d t h o s e
a r o u n d t h e m , in their adulthood, in a society that h a d c h a n g e d
drastically. O v e r s t r e s s i n g the point, b u t not b y m u c h , t h e s e w r i t e r s
w e r e b o r n free, and n o w lived as slaves. Later g e n e r a t i o n s w o u l d be
b o r n slaves, and w o u l d not notice, or notice less, the contrast b e t w e e n
past and present, b e t w e e n h o w things could b e , and h o w they w e r e . I n
other w o r d s , it is during swan song periods that m a n y t h i n k e r s are
forced, by the unity of p o w e r (which only w a n t s servants a n d n o t
collaborators) to quit public affairs, a n d turn to the w o r l d of letters as
the only place w h e r e they can be free to apply their talents, free to
discuss the evils w h i c h o p p r e s s and corrupt t h e m and society. T h e
contrast for the best m i n d s w a s m a d e m o r e painful by the fact that in
p r e v i o u s times m a n y of t h e m w o u l d h a v e b e e n active in society in
important leadership positions:
in g o v e r n m e n t ,
administration,
b u s i n e s s , in fostering major i m p r o v e m e n t s to society, as indeed, s o m e
of t h e m did for a while in the first part of their lives; b u t they h a d then
b e e n b l o c k e d by the n e w symbiosis of state and c h u r c h , by the rapidly
increased p o w e r of the kings. T h e s e c h a n g e s acted like a d a m w h i c h
i m p e d e s the flow of a stream: an artificial lake is built, but from the
b o t t o m , the w a t e r p u s h e s out at high pressure. All the m i g h t y vitality of
these m e n and w o m e n w h i c h w o u l d n o r m a l l y h a v e c o n s u m e d , e v e n
w a s t e d , in a t h o u s a n d m e d i u m and little tasks w a s n o w c o n c e n t r a t e d on
their literary w o r k s .
This contrast b e t w e e n past and present w a s painfully clear to
M a c h i a v e l l i at the t i m e in w h i c h he w r o t e his three m a s t e r w o r k s : Il
Principe, Discorsi sopra la prima deca di Tito Livio a n d Mandragola.
After a brilliant political career, he w a s in enforced seclusion in his
little estate at San C a s c i a n o , h o u n d e d by p o v e r t y and u n h a p p i n e s s , after
h a v i n g b e e n tortured and i m p r i s o n e d by the M e d i c i . In his letter of
D e c e m b e r 10, 1513 to F r a n c e s c o Vettori, he w r o t e : " C o s ì , r i n v o l t o intra
questi p i d o c c h i , traggo il cervello di muffa, e sfogo q u e s t a m a l i g n i t à di
questa m i a sorta, sendo contento mi calpesti per q u e s t a via p e r v e d e r e
se la se ne v e r g o g n a s s i . V e n u t a la sera, mi ritorno in casa et e n t r o nel
m i o scrittoio; ed in su l'uscio mi spoglio quella veste cotidiana, p i e n a di
fango e di loto, e mi metto panni reali e curiali; e rivestito
condecentemente, entro nelle antique corti degli antiqui uomini; d o v e ,
da loro ricevuto a m o r e v o l m e n t e , mi p a s c o di quel c i b o , c h e solum è
m i o , e che io n a c q u i per lui; d o v e io n o n mi v e r g o g n o parlare c o n loro e
d o m a n d a r l i della ragione delle loro azioni. E quelli p e r loro u m a n i t à mi
r i s p o n d o n o ; e n o n sento p e r quattro ore di t e m p o a l c u n a noia,
Rinascimento and Siglo de Oro as " S w a n S o n g s "
89
s d i m e n t i c o ogni affanno, n o n t e m o la povertà, n o n mi sbigottisce la
m o r t e : tutto mi trasferisco in loro".
In the letter, nothing is m o r e expressive than that "e che io n a c q u i
p e r l u i " to underline the bitter contrast b e t w e e n past and present, and
the k n o w l e d g e of b e i n g entitled to a m o r e dignified and purposeful life,
an entitlement b a s e d not on m e r e aspirations but on the recollections of
the a c c o m p l i s h m e n t s he had m a d e in a w o r l d that w a s a Golden Age in
c o m p a r i s o n with the present evils.
S o m e t h i n g similar h a p p e n e d to C e r v a n t e s w h o h a d left Spain at the
age o f t w e n t y - o n e , and h a d returned after eleven y e a r s . A t h o m e h e
found that prices h a d risen and the standard of living, for m a n y ,
particularly those of the m i d d l e class like his family, h a d fallen. T h e
e u p h o r i a of L e p a n t o w a s a thing of the past. M o s t of his life w a s to be
spent in c o m p l e t e contrast with his d e c a d e of action a n d danger. He
w a s constantly short of m o n e y a n d in t e d i o u s a n d e x a c t i n g
e m p l o y m e n t : it w a s twenty-five years before he scored a major success
with Don Quixote.
Similarly, "the birth of the p i c a r e s q u e novel, as a literary g e n r e of
w i d e p o p u l a r acceptance, is p r o o f of the p r o f o u n d crisis of m o r a l a n d
e c o n o m i c values w h i c h affected the life of the Spain of the A u s t r i a s .
W o r k s like El Lazarillo de Tormes or El Guzmàn de Alfarache deal
with the t h o u s a n d and o n e w a y s to live o c c u p a t i o n s b o r d e r i n g
d e l i n q u e n c y , w h i l e the Marcos de Obregon and La Picara Justina are
t w o e x p o n e n t s of t w o archetypes of anti-heroes - the p r o d u c t of a bitter
skepticism w h o s e central axis is the struggle for life - alive in m o c k e r y
or deformation of reality, p e o p l e and t h i n g s " (Sola C a s t a n o ) .
But, o n c e m o r e , these masterpieces w e r e p o s s i b l e b e c a u s e their
authors k n e w that life and society h a d b e e n different before. Later
generations w o u l d feel less upset: things could easily b e c o m e w o r s e .
T h u s , the literature of the swan song periods is skeptical a n d
pessimistic, at times even cynical, in contrast with the m o r e positive
spirit of the p r e c e d i n g era: A l e m a n ' s Guzmàn de Alfarache "is o n e of
the m o s t pessimistic b o o k s ever w r i t t e n . . . s a t u r a t e d t h r o u g h and
t h r o u g h with a belief in the utter corruption of h u m a n n a t u r e "
( B r e n a n ) . In La vida del buscòn, Q u e v e d o ' s " v i e w s s h o w the great
w e a k e n i n g in the sense of reality that h a d taken place since the
b e g i n n i n g o f the century. Spaniards w e r e living a m o n g w r a t h a n d
s h a d o w s " ( B r e n a n ) . " C a l d e r ó n ' s tragic v i e w of life is, h o w e v e r , w i d e r
17
18
19
17
18
19
Ibid., pp. 84-85.
Brenan, op. cit., pp. 171-72.
Ibid., p. 270.
W i l l i a m A. Therivel
90
than his p r e o c c u p a t i o n with the social c o d e of honour...In Life Is a
Dream the material and social a d v a n t a g e s that life can b e s t o w are
s h o w n to be d r e a m l i k e and transient" ( P a r k e r ) . Don Quixote "riflette
n o n solo la d e c a d e n z a e la crisi di u n a società, ma u n a più a m p i a crisi
di valori, un n u o v o senso tragico
della vita, che s e g n a la fine di
un'epoca" (Zanichelli )
In s u m m a r y , "social criticism, in the c i r c u m s t a n c e s , w a s m u t e d , b u t
by no m e a n s silenced. Such writers as A l e m à n , Q u e v e d o , a b o v e all
C e r v a n t e s , contrived a literature that could survive in a d u n g e o n ,
slipping controversial ideas b e t w e e n the lines of their b o o k s w h e r e
skilful readers k n e w to look for t h e m " ( B y r o n ) .
T h i n g s didn't go better w h e n , instead of b e i n g o p p r e s s e d by the
unity of p o w e r , one collaborated with it as w a s the case with
Guicciardini w h o admitted it in his I Ricordi: "Io no so a chi dispiacie
più che a me la a m b i z i o n e , la avarizia e la m o l l i z i e de'
p r e t i . . . N o n d i m e n o el grado che ho avuto con più pontefici m ' h a
necessitato a a m a r e per il particulare m i o la g r a n d e z z a loro; e se n o n
fussi questo rispetto, arei a m a t o M a r t i n o L u t h e r q u a n t o me
m e d e s i m o " . " B e n noto e c a n o n i c o il giudizio del De Sanctis sul suo
c o n t o . Il m i n i m o che il g r a n d e critico ha potuto dire è c h e ' S e n t i in lui
il p r e c u r s o r e di u n a g e n e r a z i o n e più fiacca e più corrotta, della q u a l e
egli ha scritto il v a n g e l o nel suoi R i c o r d i ' " ( S a p e g n o ) . T w o p a g e s
o n w a r d s , De Sanctis added: "I suoi Ricordi s o n o la c o r n i t e l a italiana
codificata e innalzata a regola di v i t a " .
20
21
22
23
24
25
Post-Swan song
T h e parallelism b e t w e e n Spain and Italy c o n t i n u e d for the l o n g sad
post-swan song period: in ltalv, in 1 6 4 1 , T o r q u a t o A c c e t t o p u b l i s h e d
his m a n u a l Della dissimulazione onesta , and six years later, in Spain,
Baltasar G r a c i à n p u b l i s h e d his El oràculo manual y arte de prudencia.
O n the f i r s t , B e n e d e t t o C r o c e w r o t e : "In questa p r i m a m e t à del
26
Alexander A. Parker, "Calderón de la Barca", in Encyclopaedia Britannica,
Chicago: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 1978, Vol. 3, p. 594.
Enciclopedia Zanichelli 1994, Milan: Zanichelli, 1993, p. 374.
William Byron, Cervantes: A Biography, London: Cassell, 1979, p. 20.
Francesco Guicciardini, Ricordi, in Opere, a cura di Vittorio de Caprariis,
Milan: Riccardo Ricciardi, 1961, p. 103.
Maria Serena Sapegno, Machiavelli e Guicciardini, Florence: La Nuova
Italia, 1979, p. 191.
De Sanctis, op. cit., p. 109.
Torquato Accetto, Della dissimulazione onesta, Florence: Le Monnier, 1943.
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
Rinascimento and Siglo de Oro as " S w a n S o n g s "
91
Seicento, e ancora per qualche t e m p o di poi, l'arte del simulare e
dissimulare, dell'astuzia e dell'ipocrisia, era, per le condizioni illiberali
della società di allora, assai praticata e forniva materia agli
i n n u m e r e v o l i trattati di politica e di p r u d e n z a " . On the s e c o n d ,
V i r g i n i a R a m o s Foster said that in it Graciàn's " c y n i c i s m a n d
p e s s i m i s m are all p e r v a s i v e . . . b a s e d primarily on the k e y , repetitive
w o r d s such as caution, suspicion, d i s s e m b l a n c e , astuteness, w i s d o m ,
deception, and so f o r t h " . O b v i o u s l y the o p p r e s s i o n of the unity of
p o w e r of State and C h u r c h in Spain w a s so severe that it accelerated the
times, so that Spain not only caught up with Italy b u t s u r p a s s e d h e r in
skepticism, p e s s i m i s m , and cynicism.
27
28
Power, united or divided
W h e n the Catholic K i n g s Isabel a n d F e r d i n a n d w e r e able t o
strengthen their p o w e r , "the nobility, for lack of legal protection, fell
m i s e r a b l y , from the height of its short lived p o w e r o v e r the nation,
d o w n to the level of courtesan b e g g a r y from an o m n i p o t e n t m o n a r c h "
( S â n c h e z - A l b o r n o z ) . T h e r e w a s n o legal h e l p b e c a u s e the c h u r c h w a s
controlled b y the c r o w n . E l s e w h e r e , instead, w h e r e t h e C h u r c h w a s
u n d e r the control of the p o p e s in opposition to the c r o w n , the p e o p l e or
the aristocracy found in the C h u r c h their best ally, as it h a p p e n e d in
Italy at the time of the battle of L e g n a n o w h i c h p r o d u c e d the P e a c e of
C o n s t a n c e of 1183: the Magna Carta of the c o m m u n a l liberties.
Similar things h a p p e n e d in England. T h e r e , the Investiture Controversy
first, then the protracted fight b e t w e e n the K i n g and P o p e I n n o c e n t III
and b e t w e e n the K i n g and Stephen L a n g t o n - the m a n w h o m the P o p e
c h o s e as a r c h b i s h o p of C a n t e r b u r y against the King's n o m i n e e - led to
the signing of M a g n a Carta in 1215 at R u n n y m e d e . It w a s i n d e e d
S t e p h e n L a n g t o n w h o directed the baronial unrest into a d e m a n d for a
s o l e m n grant of liberties by the King. F r o m R u n n y m e d e , then, the
dialectic of the triangular division of p o w e r a m o n g k i n g , b a r o n s a n d
church, gradually w a s e x t e n d e d to that included in the A m e r i c a n
Constitution of 1787 with its division a m o n g legislative, executive a n d
j u d i c i a r y functions. T h e contrast with Spain is sharp: there, a c h u r c h
controlled by the k i n g s could neither help the aristocrats n o r the p e o p l e
w i t h s t a n d the will of the kings.
29
Quoted by Goffredo Bellonci in his "Prefazione" to the 1943 edition of
Accetto's manual.
Virginia Ramos Foster, Baltasar Graciàn, Boston: Twayne, 1975, p. 131.
Sànchez-Albornoz, op. cit., p. 811.
27
28
29
W i l l i a m A . Therivel
92
T h e division of p o w e r of both Reconquistas started the glory of
Spain a n d Italy, but the s u b s e q u e n t return to the unity of p o w e r
crippled t h e m for centuries, while p r o d u c i n g in the interim p e r i o d t w o
magnificent swan songs.
B u t w h a t is so different, at the level of the individual, b e t w e e n t h e s e
t w o types of p o w e r , united and divided? T h e difference is that, long
term, the unity of p o w e r crushes p e o p l e and transforms t h e m into
skeptics or insulars: d e p e n d e n t , conformist, resigned, p e s s i m i s t or
parochial enthusiast; believing in the infallibility of leaders and
teachers; w h o s e relations are basically vertical, u n d e r aristocracy or
central g o v e r n m e n t . V i c e versa, long p e r i o d s of division of p o w e r
transform p e o p l e into visitors independent, individualist, d e c i d e d ,
travelling and risking; p r u d e n t optimists; doubters, critical of leaders
and teachers; w h o s e relations are basically horizontal, within
d e m o c r a c y and federalism. Such a difference is discussed in detail in
my p r e c e d i n g article "Praised be Italy for the birth of the visitor
personality a n d W e s t e r n Civilization. Praised be Italy for G r e g o r y V I I
at C a n o s s a , A l e x a n d e r III at L e g n a n o , Innocent III at R u n n y m e d e ; for
D a n t e , Petrarch, B o c c a c c i o " , in Rivista di Studi Italiani X V , 1 ( 1 9 9 7 ) ,
p p . 25-40.
T h e Spaniards w e r e visitors up to the Setentenio de Plata (the
Seventies of Silver) of 1480-1550, but less and less after the strong
s y m b i o s i s b e t w e e n c r o w n and altar started by Isabel a n d F e r d i n a n d .
T h e s a m e transformation from visitor to insular b e g a n in Italy, after the
battle of B e n e v e n t o , at first very slowly, then in acceleration. F o r m a n y
centuries the a s c e n d i n g visitor drive w h i c h b e g a n at C a n o s s a in 1077,
reinforced at L e g n a n o in 1176, g a v e so powerful results as to h i d e the
first insular cracks, but then, with the descent of Charles V I I I of F r a n c e
till N a p l e s in 1494-5, in w h i c h "fu licito pigliare la Italia col g e s s o " (Il
Principe, xii, 3), the t w o trajectories crossed, the first in rapid descent,
the second in rapid a s c e n t .
30
Literary studies of the swan songs
For a general discussion, see also William A. Therivel, "The long-term effect
of power on creativity", Creativity Research Journal 8 (1995), 173-92; for a
discussion of Spain and Mexico, before, during and after the swan song, refer
to William A. Therivel, "Personalidad insular versus visitante, como en los
mexicanos son mas insulares y los norteamericanos son màs visitantes: y sus
origins en distintos nivelés de la division del poder", La Psicologia Social en
México IV (1992), 380-87.
30
Rinascimento a n d Siglo de Oro as " S w a n S o n g s "
93
B o t h the Rinascimento and the Siglo de Oro elicit w o n d e r a n d
a d m i r a t i o n , a strong desire to study t h e m ever better, and a p r o f o u n d
sense o f thankfulness for the p e o p l e w h o p r o d u c e d t h e m . R e a d i n g o n c e
m o r e the m a i n texts o f both p e r i o d s , a s s w a n s o n g s , o f s w a n s o p p r e s s e d
by the u n i t y of p o w e r , should contribute not only to o u r u n d e r s t a n d i n g
a n d a p p r e c i a t i o n o f these t w o e p o c h s , b u t also w i d e n the s c o p e o f
literary criticism, h i s t o r i o g r a p h y , e t h n o p s y c h o l o g y , a n d i n d i v i d u a l
p s y c h o l o g y . T h e majority of the best texts c a n n o t b u t give e v i d e n c e of
the p a i n s of their authors a n d of the m a n y a r o u n d t h e m . It is n o t a
q u e s t i o n of finding w h a t is not there, but to be on the alert for p r o b a b l e
in-depth elements.
K n o w i n g , for instance, that Il Corbaccio, by B o c c a c c i o , w a s w r i t t e n
in 1 3 5 4 - 5 5 (i.e. long before the b e g i n n i n g of the Italian swan song)
s u g g e s t s , at least in the b e g i n n i n g , that his vision "in cui il defunto
m a r i t o della v e d o v a invitta gli svela i vizi e i difetti delle f e m m i n e
tutte"" ( V i c i n e l l i ) should n o t be a reflection of p r o f o u n d m e d i t a t i o n s
on g r e a t political, social or p s y c h o l o g i c a l c h a n g e s a r o u n d , b u t
s o m e t h i n g , m o r e p e r s o n a l , macho, not so y o u n g a n y m o r e . N o t so w i t h
M a c h i a v e l l i ' s La Mandragola of 1518 w h i c h , for S e r g i o R a g n i , "è
c o m e u n a v e n d e t t a contro la m e s c h i n i t à dei suoi concittadini: è c o m e se
M a c h i a v e l l i m e t t e s s e davanti ai fiorentini u n o s p e c c h i o spietato e
dicesse loro: ' e c c o , siete così, egoisti e cinici: p e r q u e s t o F i r e n z e ha
p e r d u t o la sua libertà'. E infatti tutti i p e r s o n a g g i della Mandragola,
t r a n n e L u c r e z i a , s o n o cinici, disposti a qualsiasi a z i o n e p u r di
soddisfare i loro desideri". A n d already in the Prologo, M a c h i a v e l l i
h i m s e l f c o m m e n t s bitterly on his fate: " E g l i cerca c o n questi pensieri
v u o t i di fare p i ù d o l c e il suo triste t e m p o , p e r c h è gli è stato p r o i b i t o di
m o s t r a r e u n a d i v e r s a virtù c o n altre i m p r e s e , e n o n c'è c o m p e n s o p e r
le sue fatiche. L ' u n i c o p r e m i o che p u ò s p e r a r e è che o g n u n o stia da u n a
parte e s o g g h i g n i d i c e n d o m a l e di quel c h e v e d e ο s e n t e " 3 4 .
31
32
33
It w o u l d s e e m that for certain parts of La Mandragola, M a c h i a v e l l i
h a s r e a d C a s t i g l i o n e (or vice versa), as w h e n fra' T i m o t e o , in his s p e e c h
t o the v i r t u o u s L u c r e z i a says: " C i s o n o delle c o s e c h e d a l o n t a n o
31
Augusto Vicinelli, Scrittori nostri. Dalle origini alla fine del secolo XIV,
Milan: Arnoldo Mondadori, 1943, p. 109.
32
Sergio Ragni, La Mandragola di Niccolò Machiavelli, Perugia: Università
Italiana per Stranieri, 1994, p . l .
We encounter here the theme of the swan who would have preferred to do
other things than the writing of matters so sad and bitter.
Niccolò Machiavelli, La Mandragola (Version, in modem Italian, by Sergio
Ragni, Perugia: Università Italiana per Stranieri, 1994).
33
34
W i l l i a m A. Therivel
94
s e m b r a n o terribili, insopportabili, strane [ossia disoneste ed i m m o r a l i ] ;
e q u a n d o ti avvicini si rivelano u m a n e , sopportabili, n o r m a l i . Per
q u e s t o si dice che s o n o più grandi le p a u r e che i m a l i . . . Q u a n t o all'atto
[in sè] è u n a favola c h e sia p e c c a t o : p e r c h è è la v o l o n t à q u e l l a c h e
p e c c a , n o n il c o r p o . . . I o vi giuro, m a d o n n a , per q u e s t o petto c o n s a c r a t o ,
c h e nell'obbedire a v o s t r o m a r i t o in q u e s t o [ossia n e l l ' a n d a r e a letto c o n
u n o s c o n o s c i u t o d o p o a v e r b e v u t o u n a p o z i o n e d i m a n d r a g o l a , c o s a che
p r o b a b i l m e n t e u c c i d e r à lo s c o n o s c i u t o ma p e r m e t t e r à poi al m a r i t o di
finalmente aver figli] c'è tanto p e c c a t o quanto nel m a n g i a r e c a r n e il
m e r c o l e d ì " (Act III).
C o u n t Castiglione m a y not like it, b u t his a d v i c e on the " m o l t e c o s e
c h e p a i o n o m a l e e p u r son b o n e . . . P e r ò è licito talor p e r servizio de' suoi
signori a m m a z z a r e n o n un o m o ma diece milia", are in line, if not
w o r s e , with the r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s of fra' T i m o t e o . A n d it d o e s not b r i n g
h o n o r to C a s t i g l i o n e (but it b e l o n g s to the e p o c h ) that it w a s F r a n c i s I
of F r a n c e w h o , at B o l o g n a in 1516, tried to c o n v i n c e h i m to finally
p u b l i s h his Cortegiano ( H a c k e r ) . T h e king k n e w quite w e l l w h a t a
great help s u c h a b o o k w o u l d give h i m . Indeed, the true p r i n c e of Le
Roi s'amuse by V i c t o r H u g o (the text at the b a s e of the libretto of
Rigoletto) w a s not a d u k e of M a n t u a , but Francis I.
35
M o v i n g to the Siglo de Oro, we find a n o t h e r e x p r e s s i o n of the
courtier w o r l d (not far from that of Rigoletto) in t h e s e c o n d p a r t of Don
Quixote, w h e n the d u c h e s s little by little transforms S a n c h o P a n z a in
court j e s t e r ( M a n c i n g ) . T h i s Spanish princely p o w e r r e m i n d s u s that
k i n g F e r d i n a n d of A r a g o n w a s m o r e a " p r i n c e " of M a c h i a v e l l i than
C e s a r e B o r g i a w h o died w i t h o u t p o w e r and glory in 1507, eight y e a r s
before the w r i t i n g of The Prince. Indeed, M a c h i a v e l l i s p e a k s of
F e r d i n a n d in chapter X V I I I of The Prince, w h e r e he says that: " A l c u n o
p r i n c i p e de' presenti t e m p i , quale n o n è b e n e n o m i n a r e , n o n p r e d i c a
m a i altro che p a c e e fede, e dell'una e dell'altra è m i m i c i s s i m o ; e l'una e
l'altra, q u a n d o e' l'avessi osservata, gli s a r e b b e più v o l t e tolto ο la
r e p u t a z i o n e ο lo s t a t o " . He speaks of h i m a n o t h e r t i m e in c h a p t e r X X I :
" P e r p o t e r e i n t r a p r e n d e r e m a g g i o r i i m p r e s e , s e r v e n d o s i s e m p r e della
religione, si v o l s e a u n a p i e t o s a crudeltà, c a c c i a n d o e s p o g l i a n d o el s u o
r e g n o de' M a r r a n i " . It is not clear h o w " p i e t o s a " w a s F e r d i n a n d ' s
cruelty, n o r h o w c o m p a s s i o n a t e w e r e the prior times. In reality, the
J e w s h a d already b e e n p e r s e c u t e d severely long before, e s p e c i a l l y from
36
Francis Hackett, Francis the First, Garden City, Ν. Y.: Doubleday, Doran &
Co.,p, 171.
36
Howard Mancing, The chivalric world of Don Quijote: Style, structure and
narrative technique, Columbia, MI: University of Missouri Press, 1982, p, 157.
35
Rinascimento and Siglo de Oro as " S w a n S o n g s "
95_
1478 w h e n the Catholic K i n g s imported the Inquisition into Spain
( B e n n a s s a r , S e s m a M u ñ o z ) . This is i m p o r t a n t for an u n d e r s t a n d i n g
of the antecedents of the Siglo de Oro. Indeed, a m o n g the m a n y w h o
suffered of it, there w e r e the father and several c o u s i n s of F e r n a n d o
de Rojas the author of La Celestina of 1499, the m a s t e r p i e c e w h i c h
anticipates the p i c a r e s q u e literature, and w h i c h , for its bitter and c y n i c
view of life and society, already b e l o n g s , to the Siglo de Oro. T h i s
suffering of the " n e w Christians", anticipates that of m a n y " o l d
Christians", be they a G i o r d a n o B r u n o or a Galileo w h e n they will try
to think with their head.
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38
39
In this context, it is fascinating to read, o n e after the other, La
Mandragola and La Celestina , so m a n y are the points of contact,
b e t w e e n , on one side, the trio of C a l l i m a c o , L u c r e z i a e fra' T i m o t e o by
M a c h i a v e l l i , and, on the other, the trio of Calisto, M e l i b e a e Celestina
by F e r n a n d o de Rojas. Both, C a l l i m a c o e Calisto, w a n t the beautiful
w o m a n ; b o t h L u c r e z i a e M e l i b e a yield (and then love the seducer) after
the m a s s i v e intervention of the p r o c u r e r s fra' T i m o t e o e Celestina.
Clearly, for an u n d e r s t a n d i n g of the times, the study of the personality
and d y n a m i c s of the s e c o n d a r y characters is of equal i m p o r t a n c e .
40
41
A n d finally, m o v i n g to the mystical literature, in particular to the
w o r k s of Saint T e r e s a of Avila (of M a r r a n o o r i g i n , like F e r n a n d o de
Rojas), the writing, of mystical w o r k s (as the Castillo interior of 1577,
the m a s t e r p i e c e of Saint Teresa) can be the equivalent of the
M a c h i a v e l l i c : " E d in su l'uscio mi spoglio quella veste cotidiana, p i e n a
di fango e di loto, e mi m e t t o panni reali e curiali, e rivestito
42
Bennassar Bartolomé, Inquisition española: Poder politico y control social,
Barcelona: Editorial Critica, 1981.
Angel J. Sesma Munoz, Fernando de Aragon: Hispaniarum Rex, Zaragoza:
Gobierno de Aragon, 1992.
Dorothy S. Severin, "Introducción", in La Celestina di Fernando de Rojas,
pp. 11-44, Madrid: Catedra, 1992, p. 14.
The first and true title of La Celestina was Tragicomedia de Calisto y
Melibea, as the first and true title of La Mandragola was Messer Nicia or
Commedia di Callimaco e di Lucrezia (Ridolfi); cf. Roberto Ridolfi, The life of
Niccolò Machiavelli, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1963, p. 170.
For Spain, one can also make reference to two excellent books by Maravall:
El mundo social de "La
Celestina", and La literatura picaresca desde la
historia social (cf. José Antonio Maravall, El mundo social de "La Celestina ",
Madrid: Gredos, 1973, ID., La literatura picaresca desde la historia social,
Madrid: Taurus, 1986.).
Efrén de la Madre de Dios, & Otger Steggink, Tiempo y vida de Santa
Teresa, Madrid: La Editorial Catolica, 1968.
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39
40
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42
W i l l i a m A. Therivel
96
c o n d e c e n t e m e n t e , entro nelle antique c o r t i . . . " . P r o b a b l y , of all k i n d s ,
the mystical literature is the purest swan song, of a s w a n w h o is
leaving, for G o d (and not for the C h u r c h ) , e v e r y t h i n g that is h u m a n
( n o w that the unity of p o w e r has p o i s o n e d e v e r y t h i n g and e v e r y b o d y ) .
Still, with all this, it w o u l d be w r o n g to only u n d e r l i n e the funereal,
the g l o o m y aspect of these t w o great e p o c h s . T h i s article, therefore,
d o e s not intend to replace m o r e serene interpretations, but only to b e g i n
a m o r e vivid (and possibly truer) dialogue, in the spirit of B o c c a c c i o ,
w h e n h e has his D i o n e o say that " T r a m o l t e b i a n c h e c o l o m b e a g g i u g n e
più di bellezza un nero c o r v o che n o n farebbe un c a n d i d o c i g n o "
( D e c a m e r o n , IX, 10); a dialogue w h i c h m a y heighten the p l e a s u r e of
h e a r i n g those m o s t beautiful s w a n songs by r e m i n d i n g us of their
exceptional character.
WILLIAM A. THERIVEL
University of H o u s t o n ,
Houston, Texas