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Catena 30 (1997) 311-335
Human impact in the Holocene fluvial and coastal
evolution of the Marche region, Central Italy
Mauro Coltorti
Dipartimento di Scienze della Terra, Via delle Cerchia 3, Unil,ersith di Siena, Siena, Italy
Abstract
Today, the coasts of the Marche region are represented by almost continuous rectilinear sand
beaches except in the north, at the border with the Romagna region, and in the central part, around
the Conero ridge, where there are active rock cliffs. The sandy coasts are protected almost
everywhere by artificial barriers built up as a protection against the general tendency to retreat.
Along some tracts, the coastal erosion started at the beginning of this century but became
generalized after 1940-1950. This was mainly due, first, to the reduction in sediment supply,
following the improvement in agricultural techniques after the Italian Unification, and, later, to the
widespread extraction of gravels from the thalwegs related to the rapid increase in urban
population in the 1950s. However, in the same period, along the rivers, there was a widespread
creation of artificial levees to prevent lateral erosion or flooding and to extend areas suitable for
agriculture. Following these practices, the lower-middle tracts of the rivers underwent a strong
vertical downcutting which increased as a result of the creation of checkdams downvalley of many
bridges which contributed to the store of the sediments in the upper part of the valleys. At present,
most of the rivers have an irregular course and are deeply entrenched in the bedrock or inside their
own sediments.
Up to the beginning of the century, most of the lower tracts of the valleys were characterized
by strong aggradation in a braidplain system. This aggradation started as early as the Middle Ages
(1100 AD) but increased after the Renaissance as a consequence of a generalized deforestation of
the Periadriatic Basin and the following severe soil erosion. In the mean time, the coast underwent
a very fast progradation, in some places more than 500 m. Small deltas were created at the mouths
of the rivers, and longshore bars and sandy beaches began to occupy the base of the active cliffs
which previously extended between one river and another. However, in the mountain parts of the
river basins, a meander course existed, and in many cases still exists, expecially where the human
interventions were of limited extent.
Before 1000-1100 AD, all the rivers had a meander pattern and, at the junction with the sea,
entered lagoons and swamps in most cases protected by littoral barrier beaches. These conditions
were established earlier than the third century BC and have been attributed to the first systematic
land clearance and the following soil erosion during the Bronze and Iron Ages. At that time, the
regional coastline became almost rectilinear but with many active cliffs between one river and
another.
0341-8162//9r7/$17.00 © 1997 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.
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312
M. Coltorti / Catena 30 (1997) 311--335
Before being affected by a major human impact (earlier than 4000years BP) the 'natural'
coastal environment was represented by active rock cliffs which alternated with pocket beaches
corresponding to a river mouth. In some rivers, embayments and beaches were located up to
4-5 km inland from the present-day position. After the Flandrian transgression the evidence
presented reveals major changes that can be attributed to human impact. © 1997 Elsevier Science
B.V.
Keywords: Human impact; Fluvial and coastal evolution; Holocene; Marche region
1. Introduction
It is only relatively recently that a detailed assessment has been possible concerning
the evolution of the fluvial and coastal systems of the Marche region during the
Holocene. Most of the earliest studies in the region were focused on very small areas,
and hence on small components of the fluvial a n d / o r coastal sedimentary systems, and
few studies were devoted to the lower valley reaches, where the sedimentary successions
are more complex. Furthermore, although some attempts ~have been made to understand
the longer-term dynamics of the fluvial and coastal processes operating in the region,
these have invariably lacked appropriate long-term context. The landforms and sedimentary units that can be observed today can only be understood when viewed within the
framework of the last glacial-interglacial cycle, as they form the latest stages in a series
of complex adjustments to changing climatic and sedimentary regimes.
Fluvial and coastal processes are extremely sensitive to variation in sediment supply,
which, in turn, is strongly influenced by vegetation cover and hence, especially during
the second half of the Holocene, by land use (Butzer, 1977, Butzer, 1982; Goudie, 1981;
Turner et al., 1990). In Italy, as in other European countries (Becker and Schirmer,
1977; Klimek, 1987), human activity has brought about major changes in sedimentary
regime, although it is often difficult to measure the scale of this effect, and its
consequences, precisely, because of the lack of detailed information on the changes
occurring in prehistoric times (Vita-Finzi, 1969; Butzer, 1977; Butzer, 1982; DelanoSmith, 1979). Inevitably, recourse has to be made to the geological, palaeoecological
and archaeological record to estimate their impact.
In this paper, an attempt is made to provide a long-term perspective for understanding
the evolution of the fluvial and coastal features of the Marche region. Much new
evidence has been accumulated in recent years from studies carried out in conjunction
with archaeological investigations. Indeed, archaeological evidence frequently provides
the most important palaeoenvironmental information, as significant changes in sedimentary regimes were often the cause of the abandonment of sites of occupation or land use.
This review therefore benefits greatly from the opportunities afforded to study a large
number of archaeological sites and their sedimentary and geomorphological contexts.
2. Geological context
Most of the older rock formations in the Marche region are of Jurassic to Oligocene
age (Cantalamessa et al., 1986a) and consist of a 2000 m thick succession of massive,
M. Coltorti / Catena 30 (1997) 311-335
313
micritic and marly limestones. These were succeeded during the Miocene by several
thousands of metres of mainly clays and sandstones (Cantalamessa et al., 1986b). At the
end of this period, during the Messinian and the Lower Pliocene, the formations referred
to above were tectonically deformed. A marked shortening of the lateral extent of the
formations occurred through the imposition of anticlinorial and synclinorial folds which
represent the superficial expression of major easterly overthrusts (Bally et al., 1986;
Lavecchia, 1988; Calamita and Deiana, 1988; Calamita et al., 1994). The lowermost
calcareous strata, which in some places have been pushed over the later terrigenous
0
20 Km
J~v~r~1
k
3 F~ ]
Fig. I. Distribution of the main structural units in the Umbrian-Marchean-Abruzzi area. I~ Limestones and
marly limestones; 2, Marnoso-Arenacea formation; 3, Miocene turbidites; 4, Pliocene-Pleistocene clays and
sands; 5, main overthrusts; 6, reverse thrusts; 7, normal faults; 8, anti-Apennine faults; 9, buried thrusts. CAM,
Camerino; CMF, Campofilone; CGVM, varicoloured clays of the Val Marecchia; CI, Cingoli; CVA,
Civitanova alta; FE, Fermo; FR, Frasassi Gorge; LO, Loreto; MA, Mr. Acuto; MC, Mr. Catria; MCC, Mt.
Cucco; MCE, Della Cesana Mts.; MCO, Mt. Conero; MDF, Dei Fiori Mts.; MF, Montefiore dell'Aso; MFR,
Mt. Frascare; MN, Mt. Nerone; MNN, Mr. Pennino; MPN, Mt. Penna; MT, Mt. Tolagna; MSV, Mt. San
Vicino; MV, Mt. Vettore; OF, Offagna; RPT, Ripatransone; SCR, San Cristoforo.
314
M. Coltorti ,/Catena 30 (1997) 311-335
deposits, crop out today in the Umbria-Marchean and the Marchean Ridge districts
which, to the south, join and form the Sibillini Mountains (Fig. 1). In the north, the
ridges are separated by terrigenous sediments that are exposed in the Camerino
synclinorium and are of Miocene age. In the east, a minor overthrust exposes calcareous
strata near the coast at Mt. Conero. Uplift movements were activated during and after
this shortening and the subaerial evolution of the region began.
During the Late Pliocene and the early Pleistocene the area between the Marche
Ridge and the present-day coastline (the Periadriatic Basin) underwent downwarping,
which resulted in marine inundation. Large-scale upwarping affected much of the
Apennines during the Pleistocene, and led to the emergence and widespread erosion of
Tertiary and early Pleistocene strata (Coltorti, 1981, Coltorti et al., 1991a; Ambrosetti et
al., 1982; Ciccacci et al., 1985; Dramis et al., 1991; Dramis, 1992). At the same time,
reduced rates of tectonic activity led to a 'low-energy landscape', the remnants of which
are preserved today on mountain summits in the area. A low-energy landscape has been
described for the Abruzzi region ('surface villallfranchienne' of Demangeot (1965)), the
Marche (Coltorti, 1981; Calamita et al., 1982; Dramis et al., 1982; Dramis, 1992) and a
number of other localities throughout the Italian peninsula (Bartolini, 1980). The final
stage in this phase of landscape evolution is assigned to the end of Lower Pleistocene
(Ambrosetti et al., 1982; Calamita et al., 1982). However, recent discoveries in the
Colfiorito region (in the Umbria-Marche Apennines), show that fluvio-lacustrine layers
with a mammal fauna fill a palaeo-drainage network belonging to this surface (Coltorti
et al., in press). The layers have been assigned to the Jaramillo normal polarity subchron
(0.89-0.95MY), and this evidence strongly suggests that the end of the 'low-energy
landscape' occurred during the Pliocene and Early Pleistocene.
During the late Lower Pleistocene and the early Middle Pleistocene a complex
sequence of alluvial fans, fan-deltas, fluvial aggradation layers and beach sediments
were deposited in the Periadriatic Basin during what is generally referred to the
Sicilian-Crotonian period (Cantalamessa et al., 1986b, Cantalamessa et al., 1987). After
this event, in many valleys, a stepped sequence of successive fluvial aggradational layers
('terraces') can be observed. Throughout the formation of these fluvial terraces, tectonic
uplift persisted (Lipparini, 1939; Villa, 1942; Coltorti, 1981; Dufaure et al., 1989) and
was associated with a general tilt toward the east (Coltorti et al., 1991a).
In many places three dominant climatic terraces have been identified as a result of
geomorphological mapping undertaken in association with radiocarbon dating, palaeopedological investigations and assessment of palaeoethnological data (Alessio et al., 1979;
Coltorti, 1981; Nesci and Savelli, 1986; Nesci and Savelli, 1990; Chiesa et al., 1990;
Calderoni et al., 1991b; Coltorti et al., 1991b). It is believed that progressive downcutting occurred during interglacial stages, though there does not seem to be a simple
relationship between climate and terrace formation. A fourth major terrace can be
observed mainly along the middle to lower tracts of the valleys, and this cannot at
present be equated with an interglacial stage. In addition, recent geomorphological and
sedimentological investigations show that the evolution of fluvial deposits during the
Holocene has been very complex, and this evidence indicates that the links between
climate and fluvial activity are far from straightforward (Coltorti, 1991a,. Coltorti,
1991b). This point will be amplified in the following sections.
M. Coltorti / Catena 30 (1997) 311-335
315
3. Fluvial sedimentation during the last glacial stage
Alluvial sediment successions, in some places in excess of 30 m in thickness, were
deposited in a number of valleys in the Marche region during the Upper Pleistocene
(Alessio et al., 1979, Alessio et al., 1987; Coltorti, 1981; Nesci and Savelli, 1986;
Chiesa et al., 1990). The best studied succession is that of the Upper Esino river, where
the deposits are well exposed over several kilometres (Calderoni et al., 1991a). This
succession can be reconstructed in detail for the period post 42 000years BP (Fig. 2).
The evidence for fluvial activity before that time is rather sketchy, with a few metres of
fluvial sediments concentrated in small channels on the valley bottom. The age of these
old deposits is, however, difficult to ascertain.
On top of this older unit there are silty and clayey sediments (Fm, Fsc, Fcf, FI, Fr;
Miall, 1985) interfingered with thin layers of massive and trough cross-bedded sands
(Sh, Ss and Sp) and peat layers (C), a few metres thick, deposited by anastomosing
UPPERESINORIVERBASIN
Gt -Sc
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LATE GLACIAL
PRE -~)LLING
UPPER
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Fig. 2. Summary of the depositional changes, sedimentary facies and chronological evidence used to establish
the Upper Pleistocene alluvial terrace succession in the Upper Esino Basin, Marche Region (from Calderoni et
al., 1991a).
316
M. Coltorti / Catena 30 (1997) 311-335
channels (Model 8 of Miall (1985)). The peat layers gave ages older than 41 000 years
BP and 41000+400years BP, testifying to their deposition during the Hengelo
Interstadial. These fine sediments have been covered by massive and trough cross-bedded gravels (Gm, Gt), sometimes interlayered with thin, massive sandy and silty lenses,
in some places containing land-snail shells (Sh, Fm and Fcf). These sediments were
deposited in shallow channels and in the flood-plain by aggrading braided channels
(Model 2 of Miall (1985)). Finer sediments followed, similar to the previously described
ones, deposited by anastomosing rivers. The thin peat layers gave ages between 30 000
and 32 000 years BP, indicating that their deposition occurred during Denekamp-Arcy
Interstadials. Deposits from the same age were recognized also in other river valleys of
the northern Marche (Calderoni et al., 1991b).
Along the Esino River, after this unit, the coarse sedimentation represented by
massive and trough cross-bedded gravels was re-established, but was interrupted by two
events characterized by deposition of less than 1 m of massive silts (Fm, Fcf and F1).
There are no ages available for the first of these units but the dating of charcoals from a
fireplace contained in the uppermost layer gave an age of 23 500 years BP, revealing that
it was deposited during the Tursac Interstadial. It is therefore obvious that the fine
sedimentation characterized the Interstadials of the Middle and Upper Pleniglacial
whereas coarse sediments were deposited during Stadials. The intervening unit was
tentatively attributed to the Kesselt Interstadial. A sandy-silty plain was established in
these Interstadials under add climatic conditions (Model 12 of Miall (1985)).
A thick gravelly unit, mostly characterized by massive gravels, indicating a higher
rate of sedimentation, and a dramatic expansion of the alluvial plain occurred during the
Stadial phases of the Upper Pleniglacial. A large braided plain (Model 1 of Miall
(1985)), in places more than 1 km wide, was established.
It is striking how the available radiocarbon dates provide evidence that suggests how
the changes in fiver sedimentation and in channel patterns in the Marche region accord
well with the dominant climatic changes inferred for Central Europe using independent
lines of evidence (Van der Hammen et al., 1972; Woillard, 1978; Cattani and RenaultMiskovski, 1989; Follieri et al., 1989).
The data from the Wiirm Late Glacial period provide a much more confused picture.
A progressive increase in the production of lateral bars and fine sediments observed in
some places suggests the onset of more sinuous channels before the imposition of a
meandering system which led to the progressive downcutting of the floodplain.
Palaeobotanical evidence (wood, seeds, leaves, etc.) has been found associated with
peat deposits that are ascribed to several of the Pleniglacial Interstadial episodes (e.g. the
Hengelo and Denekamp-Arcy events). These offer much potential for reconstructing the
vegetation cover that existed during several of these periods, and for examining the
relationship between vegetation cover and fluvial activity. The available evidence
suggests that scattered coppices of P i n u s and Betula species occupied the lower
floodplain, whereas on the lower part of the adjacent slopes a steppe-like vegetation
prevailed (Chiesa et al., 1990). Higher slopes were characterized by stony desert and
stratified slope-waste (Coltorti and Dramis, 1987, Coltorti and Dramis, 1988), and this
landscape merged with glacial and periglacial landforms and processes that dominated in
the highest part of the catchment (Damiani, 1975; Coltorti and Dramis, 1990).
M. Coltorti / Catena 30 (1997) 311-335
317
This evidence indicates that there was a reduced vegetation cover throughout the
Pleniglacial, even during the Interstadial phases, so that there was a steady supply of
sediment to the rivers, and thus aggradational floodplain formation predominated,
creating a fluvial terrace that is widespread in the region (Lipparini, 1939; Villa, 1942;
Alessio et al., 1979, Alessio et al., 1987; Coltorti, 1981; Nesci and Savelli, 1986; Nesci
and Savelli, 1990). The deposition of this terrace (Fig. 2) constitutes the oldest of six
phases that have been recognized in the Late Glacial-Holocene evolution of the
Marchean rivers (Phase 6; Coltorti, 1991a) (Fig. 3, Fig. 4, Fig. 5 and Fig. 9 (see below)).
Significantly, downcutting did not take place until the Late Glacial-Holocene transition.
4. Holocene fluvial sedimentation
There is no precise evidence on the exact timing of the transition from an aggrading
(Phase 6) to a downcutting fluvial regime in the Marche district. Many of the rivers,
such as the Cesano River, are cut by large entrenched meanders bordered by channel
escarpments (Fig. 3) that are few metres high (Phase 5 of Coltorti, 1991a, Coltorti,
1991b). There is no chronological evidence for their modelling but it is possible that the
Marche region parallels the Netherlands, where a meander pattern was imposed during
the Late Glacial period (Vanderberghe, 1992).
Younger sediments occur at slightly lower elevations as terraced gravels laid down
under a meandering course similar to the one described by Davis (1970). These
meanders (Phase 4) have tighter loops than those of the Late Glacial period. Evidence
for this phase of activity can be found throughout the valley, from river source to mouth.
The meanders cut into Upper Pleistocene terraces, as can be seen on the Misa (Fig. 4)
and the Musone river floors (Coltorti, 1991a, Coltorti, 1991b). The elevation of the
terrace fragments above the valley floor is at a maximum in the higher reaches and
converges toward the present thalweg near the coast (Fig. 5), and in most parts of the
Marche they are actually buried beneath the coastal plain deposits (Coltorti and Nanni,
1987; Elmi et al., 1987).
The Roman town of Suasa, situated along the middle Cesano (Fig. 3), as well as the
town of Ostra, situated in the middle of the Misa River (Fig. 4), are constructed partly
over Upper Pleistocene terraces and partly over Holocene floodplain deposits (Coltorti,
1991b). Some of the Roman buildings in Ostra are also built over terraces of the
meander system (close to the present thalweg) which characterizes this part of the
valley. This evidence suggests that the meandering system persisted until Roman times
and even later. Indeed, there is evidence that a meander course persisted near the mouth
of the Musone River (Fig. 8, see below), until 1100-1300 AD (Baldetti et al., 1983;
Coltorti et al., 1991b).
Following Phase 4 a new depositional phase (Phase 3), characterized by strong
aggradation under a braided regime, created rectilinear escarpments and new floodplain
terrace fragments that lie closer to the valley bottom. These can be seen, for example, in
the valley of the Cesano River. Sometimes the sediment units created during this phase
merge with those formed during the preceding phase of meandering, as for example
along the Tronto river valley. Features belonging to Phase 3 are easily recognized on
318
M. Coltorti / Catena 30 (1997) 311-335
S L o r e n z o in C a m p o
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.
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.
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Fig. 3. Subdivision of the various phases of the geomorphological evolution of the Cesano River between S.
Lorenzo in Campo and Ponte Verde. The white part in the middle of the fiver in (a) (Late Glacial up to Roman
alluvial plain) has to be filled with (b) (up to 1900), which in turn has to be filled with (c) (1940-1950 to
present day). 1, Phase 6, late-Pleistocene alluvial plain; 2 and 3, Phases 5 and hA, Early Holocene alluvial
plain; 4 and 5, Phases 4 and 4A, Pre-Roman and Roman alluvial plain; 6 and 7, Phase 3, alluvial plain until the
beginning of the 1900s; 8, Phase 2, alluvial plain until 1940; 9, Phase 1, present riverbed and related alluvial
plain; 10, palaeochannels. The size of the valley during the older phases (upper scheme), the phase which
lasted until the end of last century (centre scheme) and the present fiver course (lower scheme) are shown
separately. The progressive narrowing of the floodplain is evident. Because of the large size of the basin the
various phases are better resolved than along the Misa River. During the Holocene, five development phases
have been recognized. Phases 5 and 4 were characterized by a meander pattern, whereas a braided one
prevailed later. The alluvial plain progressively narrows and the bed underwent downcutting except during
Phase 3, which corresponds to a period of slight expansion. This phase started in 1100-1400 AD and lasted
until the end of the nineteenth century. The lowermost scheme referred to as the longitudinal profile of the
Cesano between S. Lorenzo in Campo and Ponte Verde. The amount of fiver deepening between 1940-1950
and today is comparable with that recorded after the end of the Upper Pleistocene.
M. Coltorti/Catena 30 (1997) 311-335
319
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M. Coltorti / Catena 30 (1997) 311-335
321
aerial photographs as longitudinal gravel bars and related gravel deposits. These contrast
sharply with the point bar sequences and fine-grained sediments of the alluvial plain. In
some places, the thickness of the Holocene braidplain sediments exceeds 10m.
The braid plain was characteristic of most of the rivers in the Periadriatic Basin. It
had its maximum extension close to the coast, where it could be 3 - 4 km wide. It was
reduced in width to a few hundreds of metres in the middle tracts of the river, and it
almost disappeared at the junction with the edge of the Apennines, where the rivers
occupied narrow gorges. It is difficult to recognize in the upper reaches of the rivers,
where a change to a less sinuous meander pattern (sinuosity index of more than 1.5) is
evident. In some valleys, such as the Musone, confined meanders are still evolving,
which shows that change from one channel pattern to another does not affect all tracts of
a river course simultaneously. In the Musone, Metauro, Foglia and Potenza, for
example, the upper courses are still characterized today by many meanders, whereas
lower tracts have a braided or an irregular pattern. The presence of meanders close to the
mouth is, however, rare, the only present-day examples being the Misa and Foglia
rivers.
The transition from a meandering to a braided pattern cannot be attributed to the
consequences of climatic variations. As has been shown above, even the marked
climatic variations of the Interstadials of the Pleniglacial failed to produce a braided
system. Furthermore, they occurred well before the start of the Little Ice Age (Le Roy
Ladurie, 1967). It therefore seems evident that the switch to a braided regime is related
to sediment supply. Sediment loadings may vary greatly throughout a river's course, and
between river catchments. Sediment supply can be locally very variable, according to
variations in rock type, bedrock structures, physiography, historical factors and, during
the later part of the Holocene, socio-economic factors (Smith, 1967; Pound, 1973:
Pound, 1979).
Indeed, the upper tracts of the Marchean rivers, which are located in montainous
terrain and on resistant and permeable bedrocks (limestone and sandstones) and which
should, in theory, be much more sensitive to climatic changes than lower reaches,
continue to flow within a meander pattern that has been modified only slightly during
the last few centuries (Coltorti, 1991b). The same is true of small rivers, such as the
Misa, which for various reasons has not been affected by a strong urbanization and
quarrying. Similar evidence has been reported in the upper catchment of the Arno river,
on the Tyrrhenian side of Italy (Canuti et al., 1991), as well as in the Po valley (Maraga,
1991). The common factor appears to be sediment supply by colluviation and other
degradational processes that operated along the flanks of the river valleys. It is the
widespread degradation of the surficial deposits of the hills around the Periadriatic Basin
that has recharged the rivers with a high sediment load.
The mountain tract close to the spring has been affected by travertine deposition from
Early Holocene. The end of these depositional processes changes from place to place. In
a stream located in the Gubbio valley (Umbria region), the travertine deposition ended
slightly earlier than the Neolithic occupation, dated at 6000years BP, (Barker' et al.,
1992). In many streams of the Marche region it was suddenly interrupted at about
3500years BP (Cilla et al., 1994). The presence of many archaeological layers in the
upper part of these sequences allows the connection of this phenomenon with strong
322
M. Coltorti/ Catena30 (1997)311-335
deforestation on the upper part of the relief, as was also suggested by Vandur (1986) and
Viles et al. (1993).
The palynological studies in the Colfiorito area reveal that the swamps dried up at the
end of the Last Glacial and became established again after 4120 + 50 years BP (Brugiapaglia and Beaulieu, 1995). Usually the Interglacial sedimentation is missing in these
basins (Coltorti et al., in press), owing to karstic drainage, which became predominant
under forest cover, whereas during the Glacial periods, the sediments coming from the
slopes filled the dolines and the sinkholes, reactivating lacustrine conditions. The
lacustrine conditions in the Holocene can easily be connected to the massive deforestation for agricultural and grazing purposes, as documented by the sudden appearance of
cereal pollen at the base of the sequence (Brugiapaglia and Beaulieu, 1995).
Evidence of a strong degradation of the slopes is locally documented in places with a
very peculiar geomorphological setting since the Iron Age (Calderoni et al., 1989).
Ceramic fragments dating to the fifth and sixth centuries BC were also found at the base
of the valley fill of the M. D'Oro, a tributary of the Cesano River. However, by far the
largest increase in sediment supply appears to have occurred during historical times.
During the Little Ice Age, historical documents testify to clearing of woodland which
locally induced strong slope degradation and alluvial fan activity (Buccolini et al.,
1989).
The post-Roman age for many valley fills is indicated by radiocarbon dates obtained
from wood recovered from river banks and in pits (Biondi and Coltorti, 1982). So
abundant are the tree remains that woodland associations can be reconstructed. Thus
Biondi and Coltorti (1982) reported 160 trunks determined to species of which the
proportions were 27% Ulmus minor, 20% Populus sp., 42% Quercus sectio, robur,
3.5% Quercus cerris, 7% Quercus ilex and 0.5% Fraxinus angustifolia. Comparing with
present-day woodlands in the meso-hydric Mediterranean zone, it seems likely that
Populus, U. minor, F. angustifolia and Salix sp. (although not found) grew along the
flood-susceptible floodplain, whereas the mesophilic Q. petraea and Q. peduncolata.
occupied the higher alluvial terraces, and Q. pubescens., Q. cerris and Q. ilex occupied
the highest and driest terraces.
A younger series of dated trees has been discovered buried beneath floodplain
sediments and lying within abandoned fluvial channels. Some date to the end of the last
century. At this time, a large alluvial plain with braided channels is recorded on old
maps and in historical documents, as well as on official maps of the Military Geographical Institute, for the middle to lower reaches of the rivers. A few older trunks, buried
more deeply under floodplain sediments, date to the beginning of the Christian era, and
many more dates span the Medieval and Renaissance periods. A few maps exist for
Renaissance times (Baldetti et al., 1983) and these show that, at least in the lower tracts
of some rivers, a braided channel pattern dominated. They also show that, before the
sixteenth century, the hilly landscape of the lower Esino river valley was similar to that
of the present time, except that extensive woodland was still present in the lower valley
between Chiaravalle and the sea, for over 10 km (Fig. 6; Archivio Comunale Di Jesi).
Along the lower tracts of some rivers, there is evidence for a further phase in river
activity. In places, the large alluvial plains are slightly dissected and there is a lower
terrace unit, deposited under a braided pattern, lying close to the present river bed
M. Coltorti/ Catena 30 (1997) 311-335
323
Fig. 6. Historical map of the lower Esino valley, which documents an important change occurred at the end of
the sixteenth century. A large forest, belonging to the Camaldolesi Freres, covered the left side of the river
down to its mouth. However, the hilly landscape is similar to the present-day one and is lacking any woodland
covering. The forest has since been cleared.
(Phase 2). During this phase, the size of the alluvial plain was greatly reduced and there
was also a marked reduction in sediment supply. This suggests a concomitant reduction
in the scale of soil erosion within the catchment. A number of factors, working together,
may explain these changes. After the Union of Italy, a different agricultural system, the
'alberata', was introduced, leading to large segments of land being ploughed in an
intensive way by private land owners. Rows of fruit trees were established to delimit
individual properties, and rotation of culture was also introduced. This practice was
widespread in Central Italy in the 1930s, to the extent that fruit trees achieved a density
of 1 per 2 0 m 2 (Sereni, 1979). After this period, the mountain areas were increasingly
abandoned and much of the landscape reverted to woodland (Coltorti et al., 1995). In
addition, artificial levees and other features have been created in the lower reaches of
many rivers, to provide protection against flooding and to extend areas suitable for
cultivation. From about 1940 to 1950, transverse and longitudinal concrete groynes and
checkdams have been built across many river banks as protection against erosion.
A further major change affecting fluvial sedimentation processes has been the
increasing use of river bed gravels, which have been quarried in huge quantities, to meet
the needs of the expanding urban areas and the road network. As a result, erosional scars
were initially produced, in the river bed, downvalley of the quarries but later extending
into up-valley reaches (Gentili and Pambianchi, 1987). Bridges have been damaged by
this activity, so that recourse has been made to the building of check-dams which have
324
M. Coltorti/ Catena 30 (1997) 311 335
blocked the downstream transport of the sediments and increased the rate of erosion
(Conti et al., 1983). As a consequence, rivers have cut down into Phase 2 and 3 deposits,
in some places by several metres and reaching bedrock (Phase 1). Most rivers are thus
confined to incised rectilinear or irregular, single courses. New groynes and lateral
defences continue to be built today without taking into consideration the depositionalerosional balance to which a river's regime is adjusted. As a result, downcutting
continues and extreme flooding and erosional events occur with increasing frequency.
Curiously, however, these changes appear to have been less severe along the courses of
the rivers that have been protected by artificial levees from the end of last century, as,
for example, the Tronto River.
From the end of the last glacial stage to the present day the fluvial systems in the
Marche region record a progressive downcutting which was interrupted only during
Phase 3, which extended from the Middle Ages to the end of the last century (Fig. 9). At
the same time, there was a progressive narrowing of the alluvial plain, which again was
only interrupted by the widening connected with the aggradational Phase 3. A point to
emphasize is that the scale of downcutting that has occurred in the Marche river valleys
during the last 50 years, as a result of quarrying, is, in places, of the order of that which
occurred during the whole of the Holocene.
5. Coastal evolution
A coastline characterized by active cliffs and gravelly and sandy pocket beaches was
created by a rapid advance of the sea during the Flandrian transgression (Coltorti,
1991b) (Fig. 7, Fig. 8 and Fig. 10(see below)). The scale of coastal modification is
reflected in the discovery of Ulmus trunks, which were found 5 km inland from the
mouth of the Foglia River and buried by 7 m of the sediments that form the coastal
plain. They have been dated to 4000 years BP, and overlie a gravel beach with mussel
borings (Bedosti, 1989). These can be contrasted with the position of another Ulmus
trunk, found only 3 k m inland, buried by 11 m of sediments and dating to 10090 _+
80years BP (Gori, 1988). Such records reflect the rapid modification of the coastline
after the Flandrian transgression. However, they bear witness to the very reduced
sedimentation rates at the mouth of the river after the end of the last glaciation.
A barrier beach was built up at the mouth of the River Misa before the third century
BC, probably as a consequence of increased fluvial deposition which commenced at a
much earlier time (Fig. 7(b)). The Roman town of Sena Gallica (Senigallia) was built
during this period, on a meander neck and contained within lagoons and swamps
protected by barrier beaches. Barrier beaches were common at many river mouths up
until the Middle Ages. At the Musone mouth, for example, the Roman road from
Fig. 7. Scheme of the geomorphologic evolution at the Misa river mouth. (a) Flandrian transgression
(approximately 10000-2000 BC); (b) phase of barrier beach growth (1500-300 BC); (c) phase of rapid
progradation (1400-1900 AD). 1, Beach and barrier beach; 2, alluvial plain; 3, swamps and coastal lagoons, 4,
Pleistocene marine terraces; 5, Upper Pleistocene alluvial fans; 6, hilly terrains.
M. Coltorti / Catena 30 (1997) 311-335
o
•
CLIFFS
°o*o°o°o o o o
•
= ©
"
/
B
325
"J
,
,
o o~°oo
INACTIVE
CLIFFS
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ACH
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-
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INACTIVE
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326
M. Coltorti / Catena 30 (1997) 311-335
Numana (Alfieri et al., 1966; Baldetti et al., 1983) passed along the stable beach of the
inner lagoon which was occupied by a thick forest until the Middle Ages (Fig. 8(b)).
The unstable nature of this barrier beach is reflected in the fact that a coastal road was
not created until the eleventh century. The Roman road at the mouth of the Misa was
also built over a barrier ridge (Baldetti, 1987; Coltorti, 1991a, Coltorti, 1991b). At the
same time, many Roman towns were located at the foot of active marine cliffs, such as
Cupramarittima, Torre di Palme and Truentum (Martinsicuro) (Speranza, 1934; Alfieri,
1983).
Fluvial sediments were confined to the inner lagoons until the Middle Ages and, in
some places, even later. Indeed, the town of Porto Recanati was founded on the
shoreline in the eleventh century, which marks the time when the marine cliff was no
longer reached by the sea and when the coastline began to migrate eastward. The same
is not true of the mouth of the Misa, where the position of the port at Senigallia did not
change until the sixteenth century (Fig. 7(c)). More generally, however, many documents show that the coastline migrated eastward rapidly, with the strongest migration
(up to many hundreds of metres) occurring during the seventeenth and eighteenth
century (Giarrizzo, 1963; Ortolani and Alfieri, 1979; Jacobelli et al., 1982; Anselmi,
1986). These processes continued until the end of the last century (Fig. 7(c) and Fig.
8(c)), when the coastline reached its most easterly limit and active cliffs were restricted
to the Conero area and to the cliffs north of Pesaro (Fig. 10). Subsequently, a reversal of
the easterly trend set in (Albani, 1933; Buli, 1944; Gentili and Pambianchi, 1987).
During the last century, the river mouths have been affected by a general erosion, halted
by a stasis or a period of slight sedimentation, the age of which varies from one river to
another, between 1950 and 1970 (Buccolini and Gentili, 1986; Gentili and Pambianchi,
1987).
6. Interaction of fluvial and coastal processes in the Marche region
In the Early Holocene and until 2000 BC, active cliffs alternated with pocket beaches
to create an Atlantic-type (ria) coast (Table 1). The rapid advance of the coastline
occurred when a meander pattern was evolving inland (Fig. 9). At this time, very limited
progradation took place despite progressive downcutting of the Upper Pleistocene
terraces owing to headward erosion. This probably reflects the widespread evolution of
thick soils which protected the slopes from intense runoff processes, and the relatively
limited amount of sediment carded by the rivers. Only fine sediment reached the sea to
be dispersed out of the river mouths.
A rectilinear coastline, characterized by alternating active cliffs and barrier beaches,
developed by a little earlier than the third century BC (Fig. 10). This suggests that, in the
Fig. 8. Scheme of the geomorphologicevolution at the Musone River mouth. (a) Flandrian transgression
(10000-2000 BC); (b) phase of barrier beach growth (1500-300 BC); (c) phase of rapid progradation
(1400-1900 AD). The symbols are similar to those in Fig. 7. In the lower scheme a meander pattern was in
existence until the Middle Ages. Subsequently, the riverbed was diverted to the north several times and
protected by artificial levees.
M. Coltorti / Catena 30 (1997) 311-335
0
~
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I
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2 Km
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327
t~ ' ~
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Fig. 8.
.
:
.,.)i,
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i
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328
M. Coltorti / Catena 30 (1997) 311-335
Table l
Changes in the fluvial and coastal evolution of the Marche region
Period
Rivers
Coast
Human economy
Last cold stage
Braided to
anastotmosing
Downcutting
Meandering
Low stand
Hunter-gatherers
Erosion
Active cliffs
Pocket beaches
Erosion
Active cliffs
Barrier beaches
Coastal lagoons
Advancing inactive
cliffs
Prograding sandbeaches
Advancing strongly
Hunter-gatherers
Nomadic
Early Holocene up to
agriculture around
400 years BP
Agriculture, Bronze age
to Roman times
Downcutting
Meandering
Middle Ages
Aggradation
Renaissance to 1900
Braid plain in the
lower valleys
Aggradation
1900 to 1940-1960
1940-1960 to present
Braid plain extending
inland
Downcutting
Reduced braid plain
Rapid downcutting
Rectilinear-irregular
Channels in lower
valley
Prograding beaches
Local deltas
Erosion
Retreating beaches
Artificially
stabilized
Settled
Intensive farming
and grazing
Strong land
reclamation
Very strong land
reclamation
'Alberata' system
Artificial levees
Qaurries
Dams
Checkdams
Water extraction
Groynes
Artificial barriers
river systems, there was a larger amount of fine sediment by comparison with previous
times. The amount of sediment was so large that it could accumulate even at the active
coastal cliffs where wave interference was stronger. In the period between the second
millennium BC and the third century BC, very important changes in land use occurred.
The slash-and-burn, nomadic Neolithic agriculture was replaced by a progressive
occupation of larger areas of land during the Copper and Iron Ages (Butzer, 1977,
Butzer, 1982). The need to exploit the same piece of land as much as possible and the
increasing intensity of agricultural and grazing activities, together with the growing
elimination of woodland, surely caused progressive erosion of soils.
Fig. 9. Scheme of the phases of the evolution of the valley in the middle tract of the Marchean rivers (Coltorti,
1991a). Phase 6, braided channels characterized by a rapid aggradation during the Late Pleniglacial; Phase 5,
slowly downcutting meander courses with large bends developed during Early Holocene; Phase 4, the
downcutting operated by meander courses produced a number of terraces, mainly erosional ones, until Roman
times; Phase 3, evolution of a braid plain following soil erosion processes after the slope occupation for
agricultural purposes between 1100 and 1800 AD; Phase 2, progressive narrowing and deepening of the last
century braid plain following the land-use changes after the Italian Unity, the creation of artificial levees and
the first excavation of gravels; Phase 1, evolution of rectilinear and irregular channels after downcutting of the
older braid plain and the bedrock. These are the consequences of extensive quarrying and the creation of
checkdams.
M. Coltorti / Catena 30 (1997) 311-335
329
No major changes affected the coast and the channel patterns during Roman times
and the Early Middle Ages. This could be attributed to a better knowledge of soil
conservation techniques by the Romans and by other Italic populations (Coltorti and Dal
PHASE 6
,~., ... :. :....~:
:..~
~-'~
.. "rg~@>,'~
PHASE 3
7'
"i
~
?A ?DV~J~
Fig. 9.
PHASE 1
~
330
M. Coltorti / Catena 30 (1997) 31 1-335
0
!
~.
.....
. °'.o
"'3,,
•.~
,,,~/
/~%'".~.
/L.J
#
c ~ ~ c
~.o
-
-
i
-
[ ": "i.
~°
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~oo/
.... t-
B
~/i
4
o,°.°,.,°°°°° 5
..................
~ "
1
.......
. . . . . . . . .
..ANCONA
.
"~-..
\
8 ~.,
i
-
."
~
6
~ , ~ ' . '
C ~
~
C
Fig. 10. Scheme of the Holocene evolution of the present-day coastline after the height of the Flandrian
transgression (7000-8000years BP): present-day active cliff in limited areas, north of Pesaro and south of
Ancona (1) and present-day sandy coastline (2); active cliffs (3) and sandy coastline (4) during the third
century BC (barrier beach at the fiver mouths); active cliffs (5) and pocket beaches (6) during the height of the
Flandrian transgressionwhen the sea penetrated inside the Marcbeanfiver mouths.
Ri, 1985). Conversely, the so-called barbaric invasions caused a sudden decrease in the
population and a consequent rapid and widespread increase in woodlands. The coastal
lagoons and swamps trapped the sediments deposited by the rivers.
A new and rapid expansion of the population and of ploughed areas, at the expense of
woodland, started after 1100 AD, but major reclamation works have only been carried
M. Coltorti / Catena 30 (1997) 3 l l - 3 3 5
331
out after the fifteenth century. Many coastal swamps (e.g. along the Misa, Musone and
Potenza rivers) were filled, the surrounding woodlands cleared and many rivers were
diverted, rectified and confined between artificial levees at their mouths.
As a consequence of the progressive reoccupation of the slopes, processes of
accelerated erosion began everywhere. Most probably, large parts of the badlands, the
'calanchi', which are very widespread in the Marche region (Dramis et al., 1982), were
activated or reactivated. The large amount of solid load in the river bed, which
transformed a meander pattern into a braided pattern, is attributed to these processes.
The valleys which were previously affected by a progressive downcutting underwent a
rapid aggradation, with deposition locally of dozens of metres of sediments.
At the beginning of this century, the mountainous and hilly terrains were cultivated in
the 'alberata' system and a certain effort was therefore made to reduce soil erosion. The
coastline started to retreat, and since that period more than 500 m of beach sediments
have been eroded at certain points. The alluvial plain reduced strongly and, in some
places, started to downcut.
From 1940 to 1960 a progressive amount of gravel was extracted from the river beds
and the beds were protected by concrete levees. Deep erosion then occurred downvalley
from the quarries and was followed by upvalley erosion (Gentili and Pambianchi, 1987).
Checkdams were erected to protect bridges. They stored fluvial sediments upvalley and
activated erosional processes downvalley. After the widespread creation of these structures, in a just a few years, most of the rivers were affected by processes of downcutting
in their lower tracts. Bedrock was reached and the thalweg deepened by several metres
in some reaches.
The coastline experienced a short advance from 1940 to 1960 owing to higher
sedimentation rates related to the activities associated with quarries, but later the whole
coast had to be protected by artificial barriers to prevent further erosion.
Acknowledgements
We are especially grateful to Dr. G. Baldelli, Dr. E. Percossi, Dr. M. Silvestrini and
Dr. R. Virzi, from the 'Soprintendenza Archeologica delle Marche', and to B. Massi and
A. Mariotti from the 'Comunith delle Valli del Misa e del Nevola', for providing us with
the opportunities to study the environmental context of the Roman towns of Senigallia,
Ostra and Suasa. This work was carried out with the funds of 60% MURST assigned to
Professor Mauro Coltorti.
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