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Citation for published version:
Pettit, Zoë (2005) Translating register, style and tone in dubbing and subtitling. Journal of Specialised
Translation, 4 (4). pp. 49-65. ISSN 1740-357X
Publisher’s version available at:
http://www.jostrans.org/issue04/art_pettit.php
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Citation for this version held on GALA:
Pettit, Zoë (2005) Translating register, style and tone in dubbing and subtitling. London: Greenwich
Academic Literature Archive.
Available at: http://gala.gre.ac.uk/4957/
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Contact: [email protected]
The Journal of Specialised Translat ion
I ssue 4 - July 2005
Tr a n sla t in g r e gist e r , st yle a n d t on e in du bbin g a n d su bt it lin g
Zoë Pe t t it
Un ive r sit y of Gr e e n w ich
ABSTRACT
This art icle considers t he m anner in which t he t ranslat ors of a select ion of subt it led and
dubbed versions ( English- French) approach t he st yle and t one of t he source t ext in
relat ion t o language regist er. St ylist ic effect s inform t he viewer about t he speaker.
Em ot ions can be expressed and social relat ionships port rayed t hrough t he use of
part icular form s of language. The audiovisual t ranslat or has t o sift t hrough t he m ult iple
layers of m eaning wit hin t he cont ext of t he verbal, nonverbal, aural and visual signs of
t he audiovisual t ext . Lexical, gram m at ical and st ylist ic changes in t he subt it led and
dubbed versions of t hree film s ( Sm oke, Blue in t he Face and The Piano) will be st udied t o
est ablish t he ext ent t o wh ich coherence is secured in relat ion t o t hese feat ures.
KEYWORDS
audiovisual t ranslat ion, dubbing, subt it ling, language regist er, st yle, t on e
1 . I n t r odu ct ion
I n t his paper, we shall exam ine how t he t ranslat ors of a select ion of
subt it led and dubbed versions ( English- French) deal wit h t he t one and
st yle of t he original, raising t he followin g quest ions. Up t o what point have
t hey respect ed charact erisat ion, visual signs or t he overall at m osphere of
a scene? I s t he language of t he original colloquial, st andard or form al and
do t he t ranslat ions differ? Are idiom at ic expressions m ore prevalent in t he
original t han in t he subt it led and dubbed versions? We shall at t em pt t o
est ablish whet her t he use of a part icular language regist er in t he original
version is a det erm ining fact or in t he translat ions.
2 . D e fin it ion s of la n gu a ge r e gist e r
At t em pt s t o define language regist er have lead t o a cert ain am ount of
confusion and lack of consensus. 1 I n French, t wo t erm s are used: niveau
de langue ( 'level of language') and regist er ( 'regist er') . The first is used t o
describe what Sanders ( 1996) refers t o as " sociosit uat ional variat ion" , also
t he sense in which Dubois et al. ( 1994: 324) underst and t he t erm . They
m aint ain t hat regist re refers t o t he use of specific language according t o
t he niveau de langue ( p. 406) 2 . Gadet ( 1996: 20) confirm s t he difficult y in
pinning down t he t erm inology, linking " regist er" , " st yle" and " genre" . She
explains t hat t he French t radit ion t ends t o use " st yle" and " genre" in
relat ion t o writ t en, lit erary language but t hese t erm s t ake on a m ore
general m eaning in t he Am erican t radit ion. Conversely, Brit ish scholars
prefer " regist er" . Cheshire and Bell ( 2003: 455) explain t hat " regist er"
and " st yle" m ight be used t o refer t o " all k inds of sit uat ional variat ion" but
t he form er can t ake on a general sense whereas t he lat t er is used t o
describe specialised language by speakers wit h " shared background
49
knowledge and shared assum pt ions" . Savova decides on t he following
definit ion:
Broadly defined, 'regist er' refers t o t he way people use language in different
sit uat ions. The t erm is oft en used as a full or part ial synonym for st yle, speech
variet y or variat ion, field of discourse, and t ext t ype [ …] .
Most oft en, regist er is used t o m ean st yle. I n t hat sense, it refers t o t he 'st ylist ic
variet y', or 'st ylist ic variat ion' t hat occurs in a person's speech or writ ing in different
social cont ext s. Typically, different regist ers vary according t o t heir degree of
form alit y.
( Savova 2005: 898)
Savova goes on t o explain t hat form alit y is not t he only fact or which
influences regist er but also a " speaker's awareness of a broader net work
of differences in sit uat ion, t opic, addressee( s) or locat ion" ( I bid.) . Regist er
is affect ed bot h by t he language user and language use ( Fawcet t 1997:
74- 80) . Fawcet t ( 1997: 75) observes t hat language users m ay be defined
in relat ion t o t im e ( age/ era t hey live in) , space ( t he region t hey are from )
and societ y ( t he social class t hey belong t o) . Language use is described
according t o " field" , " t enor" and " m ode" . This is explained by Hat im 3 and
Munday who sum m arise regist er as:
The set of feat ures which dist inguishes one st ret ch of language from anot her in
t erm s of variat ion in CONTEXT, relat ing t o t he language user ( geographical dialect ,
idiolect , et c.) and/ or language use ( FI ELD or subj ect m at t er, TENOR or level of
form alit y and MODE or speaking vs. writ ing) .
( Hat im and Munday 2004: 347)
Dubois et . al ( p. 406) st at e t hat at least t wo levels of language can be
described: une langue sout enue ( 'form al language') and une langue
courant e ou com m une ( 'st andard or com m on language') . Sanders ( 1996:
43) proposes a " regist er spect rum " , from colloquial, neut ral t hrough t o
form al language. Mailhac ( 2000a: 34) ident ifies inform al, unm arked and
form al levels of speech. I t is dangerous t o presum e t hat each of t hese
cat egories are separat e, dist inct ent it ies. I ndeed in Mailhac's ( 2000a: 36)
analysis of differences bet ween levels of speech in French and English, t he
" st ylist ically m arked" vocabulary in t he t ext which is t he subj ect of his
st udy is described as eit her " colloquial" or " very colloquial" . This confirm s
t he not ion of a cont inuum as proposed by Sanders and illust rat es t he
difficult y of im posing fixed, definit ive cat egories. As Hat im and Mason
point out :
I n t he absen ce of any st ringent form al crit eria for dist inguishing one regist er from
anot her, it has always proved difficult t o discern t he precise boundaries of any
given regist er.
( Hat im and Mason 1990 : 51) .
I ndeed, boundaries are oft en blurred, and overlapping does occur.
50
3 . Ar e a of st u dy
For t he purposes of t his art icle, reference will be m ade t o t hree broad
cat egories 1) colloquial language ( inform al, fam iliar, slang...) , 2) st andard
language ( everyday, neut ral, unm arked) and 3) form al language ( lit erary,
academ ic, sophist icat ed…) . Lexical, gram m at ical and st ylist ic changes in
t he subt it led and dubbed versions will be considered t o est ablish t he
ext ent t o which coherence is secured in relat ion t o verbal, nonverbal,
audio and visual signs of t he audiovisual t ext . Specific regist ers are used
for st ylist ic effect and form an int egral part of charact erisat ion and t he
at m osphere creat ed in t he audiovisual t ext . Do t he t ranslat ors 4 of t he
subt it led and dubbed versions find expressions which belong t o t he sam e
regist er in t he original or do t hey prefer neut ral renderings which adhere
t o t he denot at ive m eaning of t he source t ext ? Fawcet t ( 2003 : 157) st at es:
A const ant headache in all form s of t ranslat ion is posed by phraseology m arked as
fam iliar or slang. Represent in g t his aspect of anot her cult ure is always problem at ic,
and t he ideological st ance of m any t ranslat ors is t hat it should be suppressed
because, as wit h dialect , t he connot at ions rarely m at ch. I t can be a problem get t ing
t he right level.
( Fawcet t 2003: 15 7)
Wit h reference t o dubbed film s in Ger m any, Herbst proposes t hat t he
dubbed t ext is unnat ural due t o t he " ext ensive use of t he st andard
language" which changes " t he way t he t ext is perceived st ylist ically"
( Herbst 199 7: 2 94- 295) . He also proposes t hat feat ures w hich are specific
t o writ t en language are used ( I bid. 296) and t he vocabulary is t oo form al
and unlikely t o appear in inform al conversat ion ( I bid. 297) . I n his
discussion of several dubbed Am erican and Flem ish versions int o French,
Goris ( 1993:
173- 177) suggest s t hat a process of linguist ic
st andardisat ion occurs in relat ion t o oral language. However, alt hough
dialect s and idiolect s are also st andardised ( p. 175) , t he st ylist ic effect s
creat ed t hrough t he lexis are ret ained in the dubbed versions:
I n cont radist inct ion t o t he charact erist ics of spoken language, t he social
different iat ion represent ed on t he lexical level has norm ally been m ain t ained in t he
t ranslat ion [ …] . I t seem s t hat t he t ranslat ors m ake serious effort s t o reproduce t he
social different iat ion of t he vocabulary. I n order t o give t he dubbed version t he
sam e popular t one t hey do not hesit at e t o int roduce som e new Fr ench popular
t erm s in t he t ranslat ion.
( Goris 1993 : 174)
Vanderschelden ( 2001) explores som e of t he challenges faced by t he
subt it ler and looks at t he relat ionship bet ween oralit y, levels of language
and subt it ling in a French film in which t wo fam ilies from very different
socio- econom ic backgrounds com e int o cont act wit h one anot her. She
observes t hat neut ral, alm ost inform al regist ers charact erise t he subt it les
which lessens t he form alit y present in t he original version ( p. 365) .
Alt hough she m aint ains t hat t he subt it ler does t ake account of lexical
51
t erm s which belong t o a specific regist er , it is m ore difficult t o render t he
specifically French cult ural allusions which appear in t he film .
Can we observe t he sam e t endencies in t he film s which form part of t his
st udy? Exam ples are t aken from t he English- French subt it led and dubbed
versions of t hree film s ( Sm oke, Blue in t he Face and The Piano) in an
at t em pt t o answer t his quest ion. These film s are int erest ing as regards
language regist er due t o t heir different geographical, socio- hist orical and
t em poral set t ings. 5 The first t wo film s were writ t en by t he Am erican
novelist Paul Aust er and produced by Wayne Wang. They are set in
downt own Brooklyn in t he 1990s. Sm oke is based on a short st ory writ t en
by Aust er. Fact and fict ion int erm ingles as t he lives of t he charact ers
unfold wit h t he Brooklyn Cigar Com pany at t he cent re of t he com m unit y.
Som e of t he charact ers reappear in Blue in t he Face, alt hough t his film
m oves in an ent irely different direct ion, and is m ore experim ent al in
design: " I t s spirit is com ic; it s engine is words; it s guiding principle is
spont aneit y" ( Aust er 1995: 159) . However, bot h at t em pt t o present a
slice of Brooklyn realit y, t he good and t he bad. The Piano is set in
ninet eent h- cent ury New Zealand. Brit ish colonialist s and Maoris m eet but
it is t he division bet ween t he t wo worlds which is port rayed. Ada, around
whom t he st ory revolves, is a young m ot her who is m ut e. She is sent t o
New Zealand by her fat her t o m arry a m an she has never m et ( Alisdair
St ewart ) . She leaves wit h her daught er ( Flora) , som e belongings and her
beloved piano.
Ext ract s from t he t hree film s will be st udied in an at t em pt t o det erm ine
whet her t he language regist er of t he original is reflect ed in t he subt it led
and dubbed t ranslat ions.
4 . Fr a m e w or k of a n a lysis
The appearance and behaviour of t he speaker/ act or creat e expect at ions in
t he viewer. Discordant t ensions would em erge if t he t ranslat or were t o use
colloquial form s of current day usage for a ninet eent h- cent ury charact er in
a Dickens adapt at ion. I n his analysis of t he subt it led and dubbed versions
of Gazon Maudit ( French Twist ) , Mailhac ( 2000b: 137) discusses t he loss
which occurs in each version in relat ion t o " colloquial, slangy or st rong
language" . I ndeed, for m ost of t he film " t he language used by all m ain
charact ers is usually colloquial, frequent ly vulgar and quit e st rong" ( I bid.
138) . Mailhac explores differences bet ween t he t ranslat ions and t he
original, showing where t he subt it les and dubbed dialogues are equivalent
t o, weaker ( t he colloquial or vulgar elem ent is t oned down or rem oved) or
st ronger ( t he t ranslat ions are m ore colloquial or vulgar t han t he original
French version) . Out of t he eight possible com binat ions, only six are t o be
found in French Twist : 1) Bot h versions are weaker t han t he original, 2)
Subt it les are weaker, dubbing is roughly equivalent , 3) Subt it ling is
weaker, dubbing st ronger, 4) Subt it ling is st ronger, dubbing weaker, 5)
Subt it ling is st ronger, dubbing roughly equivalent , 6) Subt it ling is roughly
52
equivalent , dubbing st ronger ( Mailhac 2 000b: 138- 144 ) . The com binat ions
which do not appear in t he film are 7) bot h versions are st ronger t han t he
original 8) t he subt it led version is roughly equivalent but t he dubbed
version is weaker. Mailhac concludes t hat his result s confirm t he com m ent
m ade by Fawcet t ( 1997 : 119) t hat t here is a t endency for film t ranslat ions
t o " t one down and neut ralise" ( Mailhac 2000b: 144) . I n ot her wor ds, t here
were considerably m ore inst ances where t he t ranslat ions were weaker
t han t he original. He shows t hat t his is especially evident in t he subt it led
version of Gazon Maudit ( I bid.) .
I n our analysis of st ylist ic effect s in t he subt it led and dubbed versions of
t he t hree film s which form part of our corpus, t he ext ent t o which
language regist er and st ylist ic effect s are ret ained or rem oved in t he
t ranslat ions will be exam ined. Unlike Mailhac, t he t ranslat ions will not be
classified as weaker or st ronger, but sim ply in relat ion t o whet her t he
language regist ers and st ylist ic effect s are m aint ained ( + ) or delet ed ( - ) .
As such, t he following seven com binat ions are possible:
St r a t e gy
Or igin a l
Su bt it le s
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
+
+
+
+
-
+
+
+
+
D u bbe d
dia logu e s
+
+
+
+
-
5 . An a lyse s
I n Sm oke and Blue in t he Face, t wo film s set in 1990 Brooklyn, t he
language can be described as st andard or fam iliar. Colloquialism s are
com m on t hroughout bot h film s. However, in The Piano, set in t he m idninet eent h cent ury in t he form er Brit ish colony of New Zealand, t he m ode
of expression t ends t o be m ore form al, in keeping wit h Vict orian
convent ions of t he era. The following exam ples, show how t he sam e
regist er is chosen in bot h versions ( St rat egy 1: + + + ) :
53
Sm oke
En glish ve r sion
1) AUGGI E: I t was
dit sy enough doing m y
lit t le j ig as Granny
Et hel's grandson…
2) TOMMY: …and I
m ean t hey're going t o
hit
him
wit h
all
t hey've got . You m ark
m y words.
3) AUGGI E: That 's a
feat her in your cap,
m an.
4)
AUGGI E:
Hey!
What are you doing
t here kid! Hey, cut ,
t hat out !
Su bt it le d ve r sion
Fallait déj à êt re ballot
pour j ouer au pet it - fils d'Et hel,
I ls vont lui en fout re
plein la gueule!
D u bbe d ve r sion
I l fallait déj à êt re un
peu ballot pour j ouer
au pet it - fils de Mém é
Et hel, m ais…
Et vous verrez, ils
vont lui en fout re sur
la gueule! C'est pas
des paroles en l'air!
Tu devrais êt re fier com m e un pou!
Tu devrais êt re
com m e un pou!
fier
Tu fous quoi, là?
Heh, qu'est - ce que t u
fabriques t oi? Tu vas
voir!
I n t he first exam ple, 'dit sy' ( fam iliar) is t ranslat ed in bot h versions by
ballot ( also fam iliar and t ranslat ed by 'nit wit ', 'blockhead' or 'fool' in t he
Larousse dict ionary) . Rem oving il in t he subt it led version ( fallait and not il
fallait ) is charact erist ic of inform al, spoken French and cont ribut es furt her
t o t he fam iliar t one of t he original.
I n t he second exam ple, t he charact er is involved in a discussion about
Kuwait , t he Pent agon and Saddam Hussein ( 't hey're gonna hit h im wit h all
t hey've got ') . A colloquial expression appears in bot h su bt it led and dubbed
versions, fout re plein la gueule/ fout re sur la gueule ( t he Larousse offers
't o bash or sm ash som eone's face in') . I n t erm s of language regist er, t he
French t ranslat ions rem ain close t o t he original and also fit 1) t he
charact er, Tom m y, one of t he local black resident s who likes t o " shoot t he
breeze wit h Auggie" ( Aust er 1995: 20) , and 2) t he cont ext , a friendly,
busy cigar shop run by Auggie, on a nondescript st reet corner of Brooklyn.
Various local resident s go t here t o buy cigaret t es, newspapers and m ore
im port ant ly pass t he t im e of day. The shop is a m eet ing point for t he
com m unit y.
I n exam ple 3, Auggie st at es t hat it is an honour for Paul t o have been
chosen t o writ e an art icle for The New York Tim es: 'That 's a feat her in
your cap' could have been t ranslat ed by an equivalent expression c'est un
fleuron à t a couronne. However, t he subt it ler and dubber prefer a m ore
colloquial t urn of phrase, Tu devrais êt re fier com m e un pou! ( 'you m ust
be as proud as a peacock') . Auggie is " som ewhere bet ween fort y and fift y
years old" and has " a scruffy presence" ( Aust er 1995: 19) . Paul is a
regular cust om er. He is in his early fort ies, a writ er and " dressed in
rum pled casual clot hes" ( p. 24) . The relat ionship bet ween t he t wo is
inform al. The expression offered in t he t ranslat ions corresponds once
again t o t he charact er and overall am biance of t he sequence. A dual
coherence is t herefore at t ained bet ween t he original dialogue and t he
54
t ranslat ions on t he one hand, and bet ween t he t ranslat ions and visual
charact erisat ion of t he act ors on t he ot her. I n t he final exam ple, Auggie
not ices a yout h t rying t o st eal m agazines. The subt it ler reinforces his
anger using a fam iliar regist er: Tu fous quoi, là? ( 'What t he hell are you
doing over t here?') . Sim ilarly, t he dubbed dialogue m aint ains t he st yle of
t he original wit h Qu'est - ce que t u fabriques, t oi? ( 'What are you up t o') .
The exam ples below t aken from Blue in t he Face, also illust rat e
equivalence in relat ion t o t he t one of t he original ( em phasis added) :
Blue in t he Face
En glish ve r sion
5)
AUGGI E:
Last
sum m er t here was a
st ret ch of a couple of
weeks
when everywhere I
t urned
everyone
seem ed t o be going
nut s.
I m ean, it 's crazy
enough
living
in
Brooklyn in t he first
place
but … so m any weird
lit t le
t hings
kept
poppin g up at once…
6) I AN FRAZI ER: And
it really drives m e
nut s. I t 's like a flag…
of chaos. A bag in a
t ree. I t 's a sym bol.
L'ét é dernier,
il y a 2 ou 3 sem aines
D u bbe d ve r sion
L'ét é dernier il y a eu
deux
ou
t rois
sem aines
où t out le m onde sem blait disj onct er
aut our de m oi.
pendant lequel t out le
m onde
sem blait
disj onct er aut our de
m oi.
C'est vrai, c'est déj à
assez dingue de vivre
à Brooklyn,
C'est déj à assez dingue
de vivre à Br ooklyn,
m ais t an t de t rucs bizarres
se sont passés en m êm e t em ps…
Ça m e m et hors de m oi.
Pour m oi, c'est le drapeau…
du chaos. Un sac dans un arbre,
c'est un sym bole
I t 's j ust … and I used
t o see t hem , and j ust ,
t hey would bug m e.
Avant , quand j e voyais ça,
ça m e t apait sur les ner fs.
7)
VI NNI E:
Hey,
Auggie, it 's a lot of
m oney. I 'd be crazy t o
t urn it down.
Ça fait beaucoup d'argent .
Je serais dingue de refuser.
m ais il s'est passé t ant
de t rucs bizarres en
m êm e t em ps…
et ça m e m et hors de
m oi. Pour m oi, c'est
l'ét andard…
du
euh,
chaos.
Plast ique
dans
un
arbre,
c'est
un
sym bole, et j e…
Oui et avant , quand
j 'en voyais, à chaque
fois
ça
me
crispait .C'ét ait …
Hé Auggie, ça fait un
sacré pacquet de fric.
Je serais dingue de
refuser.
The dialogue in exam ple 5 occurs at t he beginning of t he film and serves
as an int roduct ion for t he event s which follow. The inform al regist er of t he
original is ret ained in bot h versions. 'To be going nut s' is t ransposed in
each case by disj onct er ( which lit erally m eans 't o short - circuit ', and as an
expression 't o go off t he rails') . 'Crazy' becom es dingue and 't hings', t rucs.
The film m oves t o t he realm s of docum ent ary in exam ple 6 where I an
Frazier, an act ual resident of Brooklyn, is film ed in Prospect Park carrying
out his hobby of rem oving plast ic bags from t rees. The expression 't o
drive m e nut s' is subt it led and dubbed by ça m e m et hors de m oi ( 'I was
55
beside m yself') . Once again t he st yle of t he original is m aint ained t hrough
t his figurat ive expression. Frazier cont inues wit h 't hey wou ld bu g m e'. The
subt it ler opt s for ça m e t apait sur les nerfs ( 'it got on m y nerves') and t he
dubber, ça m e crispait ( 'it used t o irrit at e m e') . Bot h t ranslat ions are
fam iliar and t ransm it t he sense of t he English version. However, t he
slight ly m ore fam iliar expression in t he subt it le em phasises Frazier's
frust rat ion and so reveals m ore about t he individual. Finally, in exam ple 7 ,
Vinnie, t he owner of The Brooklyn Cigar Com pany, is t alking t o Auggie
about selling t he st ore. Bot h t he t ranslat ors t ranspose 'crazy' as dingue,
but t he dubbed version becom es even m ore colloquial as 'it 's a lot of
m oney' becom es ça fait un sacré paquet de fric ( 't hat 's a hell of a lot of
dough') . Alt hough t he dubbed version is st ronger, it does fit t he speaker
and cont ext . The sam e could be said for t he following exam ple from The
Piano where t he lit eral t ranslat ions also fit t he eloquent st yle of t he
charact er. Ada is m ut e and we hear her t hought s in t he exam ple below as
she im agines t he m an ( St ewart ) she is being sent t o m arry in New
Zealand:
The Piano
En glish ve r sion
8) ADA: Were it good he
had God's pat ience.
I l serait bon qu'il ait
une pat ience divin e.
D u bbe d ve r sion
I l serait bon qu'il ait une
pat ience divine.
Up unt il t his point t hen, sim ilarit ies in relat ion t o language regist er and
st yle have been observed bet ween t he original and t he t ranslat ed
versions. Let us now explore exam ples from t he second st rat egy ( + + - )
where, unlike t he dubbed version, t he subt it led version conveys t he
st ylist ic effect s in t he original:
Sm oke
En glish ve r sion
9) AUGGI E: You'll never
get it if you don’t slow
down m y friend.
10) AUGGI E: Why don't
you com e clean and t ell
t he m an who you are?
11) CYRUS: You m ockin'
m e?
12) AUGGI E: The poor
lug, he's never been t he
sam e since.
Tu ne pigeras pas,
si t u ne ralent is pas.
D u bbe d ve r sion
Tu ne verras pas, si t u
ne ralent is pas un peu.
Vide t on sac et dis- lui qui t u es.
Vas- y carrém ent et dis
à ce Monsieur qui t u es.
Tu t e fiches de m oi?
Tu t e m oques de m oi?
Ça l'a déglingué, le pauvr e.
Le pauvre t ype, il n'a
j am ais pu s'en rem et t re.
Mon gât eau, j e le m angerai pas :
j e l'aurai dans la t ronche…
D u bbe d ve r sion
Des gât eaux j e vais pas
les dégust er t ranquille…
huh, j e suis sûre qu'on
m e les écrasera en
pleine figure…
Blue in t he Face
En glish ve r sion
13)
SASALI NA
GAMBI NO: I don't get
no cake… t o eat it , I
have t o get it sm ashed
in m y face…
56
Each day at eight o'clock in t he m orning, Auggie t akes a pict ure of t he
corner of Third St reet and Sevent h Avenue. I n exam ple 9, Auggie advises
Paul t o slow down as he looks t hrough t he 4000 phot ographs in t he
album . 'You'll never get it ' is t ranslat ed lit erally by t u ne pigeras pas ( in
t he subt it led version) and t u ne verras pas ( 'you won't see [ t he point ] ') in
t he dubbed version. I t is likely t hat during synchronisat ion t he t ranslat ion
has been alt ered t o achieve part ial synchronisat ion bet ween 'you'll never'
and t u ne verras. This change has also lead t o a shift in regist er in which
t he fam iliar t one of t he original is lost from t he dubbed version. I t is
m aint ained in t he subt it led version and is in keeping wit h Auggie's
easygoing charact er and t he inform al set t ing of t he sequence. Exam ples
10 and 11 occur when Rashid is forced t o reveal t hat he is Cyrus's son.
Rashid is a black adolescent who, hiding his t rue ident it y, est ablishes
cont act wit h his fat her ( Cyrus) who abandoned him when he was a child,
aft er a car accident in which Rashid's m ot her was killed. Du ring t he course
of t he film Rashid runs away from t he hom e he shares wit h his aunt and
uncle, befriends Paul and Auggie, and st ill concealing his ident it y, t akes on
a part - t im e j ob working for Cyrus at a pet rol st at ion. Exam ples 10 and 11
occur when Auggie and Paul appear at t he service st at ion, having
discovered Rashid's decept ion in t he m eant im e. They force him t o confess
t he t rut h t o Cyrus. This scene is t herefore dram at ic and em ot ionally
charged. I n exam ple 10) Auggie expresses his frust rat ion as Rashid
cont inues t he charade. An equivalent idiom at ic t urn of phrase for 't o com e
clean' is subt it led by vide t on sac ( lit erally, 'em pt y your bag' or
figurat ively, 'get t hings off your chest ') . This is lost in t he dubbed ver sion:
Vas- y carrém ent et dis à ce Monsieur qui t u es ( 'Go ahead and t ell t his
m an st raight out who you are') . Once again it is likely t he original
t ranslat ion has been alt ered during t he synchronisat ion process t o
synchronise t he let t ers 'com e clean' and carrém ent . Accordingly, 'You
m ockin’ m e? ' is subt it led as Tu t e fiches de m oi? ( 'Are you kidding m e' or
'do you t ake m e for a sucker' according t o t he Larousse dict ionary) but
dubbed as Tu t e m oques de m oi? ( 'Are you m aking fun of m e?') . The
st andard regist er in t he dubbed dialogue t ones down t he em ot ion and
anger of t he charact er. I n exam ple 12 Auggie refers t o Paul whose
pregnant wife was shot dead during a holdup. Fam iliar language is also
int roduced in t he subt it led version wit h déglingué ( Ça l'a déglingué, 'That
wrecked him ') . However , a st andard rendering appears in t he dubbed
version: Le pauvre t ype, il n'a j am ais pu s'en r em et t re ( ' t he poor chap, he
never recovered/ got over it ') . I n t he last exam ple, a young, black, local
resident explains how her birt hday w ill be celebrat ed in Brooklyn. I n order
t o t ransm it t he t one of t he original and respect charact erisat ion, t he
subt it ler changes t he regist er and t ranslat es 'face' wit h a m ore fam iliar
t erm , la t ronche. This is not t he case in t he dubbed version wit h t he
t ranslat ion en pleine figure ( 'right in your face') , where figure is st andard
usage. The subt it ler uses regist er as a way for com pensat ing for ot her
om issions ( 'get it sm ashed' is t ranslat ed by t he m ore st andard j e l'aurai or
'I 'll have/ get it ') . 6
57
St rat egy 3 ( + - + ) occurs when a m ore st andard, neut ral regist er is used
in t he subt it led version. Few exam ples of t his were found in t he film s.
Sm oke
En glish ve r sion
14) RASHI D: I f t he guy
from t he check- cashing
place hadn't run off
scream ing
bloody
m urder, he would have
shot m e.
L'em ployé est sort i en hurlant ,
sinon il m 'aurait abat t u.
D u bbe d ve r sion
Si le gars de la banque
n'ét ait pas sort i, en
courant et en hurlant
com m e un m alade, La
Belet t e aurait t iré sur
m oi.
I n t he exam ple from Sm oke, t he expression 't o scream bloody m urder'
does not have an equivalent in French. However, unlike t he subt it ler, t he
dubber ret ains t he expressive nat ure of t he original by adding hurlant
com m e un m alade ( 'yelling like a m adm an') . Le gars ( 't he bloke') is also
insert ed t o t ranslat e 't he guy' whereas t he m ore neut ral em ployé
( 'em ployee') appears in t he subt it le. The subt it ler has rem oved t he
expression in t he original. I t is int erest ing t o not e t hat t he dubber also
ensures t hat t he public underst ands how Rashid's st ory fit s in wit h t he
narrat ive by m ent ioning exact ly who would have shot him ( La Belet t e or
'The Creeper' in t he English version) .
On som e occasions neit her t ranslat or finds a way t o ret ain t he t one of t he
original ( St rat egy 4 + - - ) :
Sm oke
En glish ve r sion
15) CYRUS: Yeah, but
he's m y son. He's m y
own flesh and blood.
Mais c'est m on fils.
On est du m êm e sang.
D u bbe d ve r sion
Eh oui, m ais c'est m on
fils. Mon sang coule
dans ses veines.
Ces 35 hect ar es près du ruisseau,
qu'en penses- t u ?
D u bbe d ve r sion
Les quarant e hect ares
qui
sont
près du
ruisseau,
qu'est - ce
que t u en penses?
Je
n'ai
pas
les
m oyens.
Où veux- t u en v enir?
At t ent ion, la dent elle
est t rès fragile!
The Piano
En glish ve r sion
16) BAI NES: Those 80
acres across t h e st ream ,
what do you t hink of
t hem ?
STEWART: I don't have
any m oney,
What are you on about ?
17) MORAG: Careful,
t he lace is m ost fragile.
J'ai pas d'argent .
Pourquoi en parles- t u ?
La dent elle est fragile!
'He's m y own flesh and blood' ( exam ple 15) could have been t ranslat ed by
t he equivalent expression in French c'est la chair de m a chair. However,
bot h versions offer an explicit rendering On est du m êm e sang ( 'we have
t he sam e blood') and Mon sang coule dans ses veines ( 'm y blood flows in
his veins') . St ylist ically, t he t ranslat ions differ from t he original alt hough
t hey do convey t he denot at ive m eaning. I n t he ext ract s from The Piano,
t he expressive nat ure of t he original is at t enuat ed som ewhat in t he
58
subt it led and dubbed ver sions. Exam ple 1 6 t akes place as Baines bargains
wit h St ewart . He offers land in exchange for Ada's piano: 'What are you
on about ' becom es Pourquoi en parles- t u ( 'Why are you t alking about it ')
in t he subt it led version. The subt it ler t hereby links t he t ranslat ion t o t he
previous subt it le and t he rest of t he conversat ion. At hough t he dubbed
t ranslat ion fit s in perfect ly wit hin t he cont ext and m eaning of t his
exchange, t he colloquial elem ent disappears Où veux- t u en venir? ( 'What
are you get t ing at ') . I n exam ple 17, we see Morag helping t o arrange
Ada's wedding dress. Morag is a m iddle- aged Englishwom an who has
em igrat ed t o New Zealand. She looks down on t he Maoris and upholds
Brit ish t radit ions and et iquet t e at every occasion. The use of 'm ost ',
m eaning 'very' in t his cont ext , corresponds t o a for m al regist er and is also
indicat ive of social class and t em poral set t ing. The subt it ler om it s t his
com plet ely and adds an exclam at ion m ark t o port ray t he pedant ic nat ure
of t he speaker in t his scene. The dubber adds t rès and so t he denot at ive
m eaning is t ransm it t ed alt hough t he connot at ions of 'm ost ' in t he original
are not .
Let us now m ove on t o a discussion of inst ances where t he dubbed
dialogues differ in t erm s of language regist er ( St rat egy 5: - - + ) :
Sm oke
En glish ve r sion
18)
PAUL:
…and
lit t le by lit t le he
sm oked his book.
si bien qu'à la fin, il fum a son livre.
D u bbe d ve r sion
…si bien qu'à la fin,
il fum a t out son
bouquin.
Pas de problèm e, Vinnie.
Je gérerais ce m agasin les yeux ferm és.
D u bbe d ve r sion
Pas de problèm e. Je
cont rôle la sit uat ion.
Je peux bosser les
yeux ferm és.
Dans m on enfance, j 'ai dû souffrir d'un
aut re t raum at ism e.
J'ai
dû
probablem ent …
souffrir
d'un
t raum at ism e
ét ant
gosse.
Term iné les cigares
à l'oeil, hein?
Blue in t he Face
En glish ve r sion
19)
AUGGI E:
No
problem ,
Vin .
Everyt hing's
under
cont rol. I could run
t his st ore in m y
sleep.
20)
MAN
WI TH
UNUSUAL GLASSES:
And if t here was
probably a childhood
t raum a t hat I had…
21)
VI NNI E:
No
m ore f ree cigars, eh,
Auggie?
Plus de cigares grat uit s, hein ?
The Piano
En glish ve r sion
22) STEWART: What
are you doing, we
don't have t im e for
t his…
23) STEWART: So,
Baines is packing
up?
Que fait es- vous ?
Nous n'avons pas le t em ps !
Baines fait ses bagages ?
D u bbe d ve r sion
Que
fait es- vous?
Bon
sang!
Nous
n'avons
pas
le
t em ps.
Baines plie bagages?
59
I n exam ples 18- 21, colloquial vocabulary em erges in t he dubbed
dialogues. Bouquin ( fam iliar) t ranslat es 'book' inst ead of livre, and 'I could
run t his st ore in m y sleep' becom es Je peux bosser les yeux ferm és ( 'I can
work wit h m y eyes closed', where bosser is a fam iliar t erm for 't o work') .
Again t he original t ranslat ion was probably alt ered during synchronisat ion
t o provide t he best fit bet ween lip m ovem ent s and t he new soundt rack. I n
exam ples 20 and 21, t he m ore fam iliar use of language ( gosse 'kid', à
l’oeil 'on t he house') in t he dubbed version fit s t he global cont ext and
charact erisat ion. The " Man wit h Unusual Glasses" ( exam ple 20) is Lou
Reed. Aust er writ es:
We [ Aust er and Wayne Wang, t he producer] decided t o use Lou as him self, not as
an act or: j ust sit him behind t he count er of t he cigar st ore and get him t o t alk on
various subj ect s. He was t o be t he resident philosopher of t he Brooklyn Cigar
Com pany, a m an who j ust happened t o be t here, for no part icular reason,
expoundin g on t his and t hat .
( Aust er 1995: 183)
Aust er t ries t o explain why t hey chose Lou Reed and suggest s it m ight
have been due t o his " caust ic sensibilit y" or perhaps " his appreciat ion of
t he ironies of life" or " sim ply because of his m arvellous New Yorkaccent ed voice" ( I bid. 18 3) . All of t his com es across t hrough t he charact er
labelled only as ''The Man wit h Unusual Glasses" . He t alks about various
event s in a relaxed, inform al m anner. The last ext ract from Blue in t he
Face, t akes place as Auggie t ries t o convince Vinnie not t o sell t he cigar
st ore. The relat ionship is one of good friends rat her t han
em ployer/ em ployee. Therefore, in bot h t hese ext ract s, t he inform al
regist er in t he dubbed version fit s bot h t he cont ext and charact erisat ion.
I n exam ple 22 from The Piano, t he dubbed version reinforces St ewart 's
anger by adding an explet ive, Bon sang ( 'dam n and blast it ') . Alt hough
t he charact er is irrit at ed, he rem ains form al in t he original. The
t ranslat ion 7 serves t o em phasise St ewart 's frust rat ion in t his scene. This is
com prom ised slight ly in t he final sent ence where a m ore colloquial t urn of
phrase is used Baines plie bagages 8 ( 'Baines is packing up and going') .
This does not quit e fit wit h t he st iff, con vent ional m anner of t he charact er.
Once again, it is likely t hat t he original t ranslat ion was alt ered due t o t he
need for lip synchronisat ion.
I n t he above ext ract s, t he dubber changes t he st yle and language regist er
of t he original. At t im es, t he subt it ler also chooses t his st rat egy ( St rat egy
6: - + + ) :
60
Sm oke
En glish ve r sion
24) PAUL: I m ean, if
you
t hink
you're
going t o die, what 's
m ore im port ant , a
good book, or a
good sm oke?
Tu crois que t u vas m ourir,
t u préfères un livre ou u ne clope?
D u bbe d ve r sion
C'est vrai. Si t u crois
que ce qu'on a de plu s
im port ant c'est un bon
livre ou une bonne
clope…
Je veux m 'achet er du m at os.
Vous m 'en prenez une?
D u bbe d ve r sion
J'aim erais
bien
m 'achet er du m at os…
alors,
vous
m 'en
prenez une?
Oui, les filles de Brooklyn savent se
bat t re. On se cr êpe pas la chignon.
Si
les
filles
de
Brooklyn savent se
bat t re? Ah oui, bien.
On n'est pas du genre
à se crêper le chignon.
Blue in t he Face
En glish ve r sion
25)
RAPPER:
I 'm
t rying t o get som e
equipm ent ,
m an.
You want t o buy a
wat ch?
26)
SASALI NA
GAMBI NA: I s, is a
Brooklyn girl a good
fight er? Of course.
Because we don’t
scrat ch
and
pull
hair.
'Sm oke' ( exam ple 24) is t ranslat ed by t he fam iliar t erm for cigaret t e in
French, clope. Alt hough t he regist er changes, t his t ranslat ion m at ches
Paul's relaxed m anner and t he inform al cont ext . The sam e could be said
for m at os ( 'gear') , in exam ple 25, which replaces 'equipm ent '. Sasalina
Gam bina ( exam ple 26) , a local Brooklyn resident st udied in an earlier
ext ract ( exam ple 13) , oft en uses colloquialism s, slang, and gram m at ically
incorrect language. The ext ract quot ed here is an except ion. However, t he
subt it led and dubbed versions t ake account of t he way she com es across
t hroughout t he film , and provide a colloquial expression se crêper le
chignon ( 't o have a go at each ot her') . The t ranslat ions are t herefore
consist ent wit h t he overall port rayal of t he individual.
I n t he final st rat egy, a change in regist er occurs in t he subt it les but not
t he dubbed dialogues ( St rat egy 7: - + - ) :
Sm oke
En glish ve r sion
27) AUGGI E: He ran ou t of
luck.
I l m anque plut ôt de pot .
D u bbe d ve r sion
I l m anque de chance.
Assieds- t oi.
D u bbe d ve r sion
Asseyez- vous, ça suffit .
The Piano
En glish ve r sion
28) MORAG: Sept im us,
now st op it .
The expression 't o run out of luck' is subt it led by il m anque plut ôt de pot
( 'he's out of luck') as opposed t o a m or e st andard rendering in t he dubbed
61
version il m anque de chance ( 'he is short of luck') . Auggie oft en uses
slang and inform al expressions, an essent ial part of his charact erisat ion,
and t he subt it le t akes account of t his. I n The Piano, an elem ent of
fam iliarit y is added t o t he subt it led version t hrough t he use of t he inform al
t u as opposed t o t he m ore form al vous. The cont ext it self is not form al at
t his point , however as t he charact ers conform t o t he rigours of polit eness
and form alit y of t he ninet eent h cent ury it would have been m ore likely
t hat t hey would address each ot her wit h vous.
6 . Su m m a r y
We have seen t hat m arked form s of language are rem oved from or added
t o t he subt it led and dubbed versions t hrough a change in regist er. Lip
synchronisat ion oft en leads t o a shift in t he dubbed dialogues, in which
st andard language em erges ( + + - ) . This also reduces coherence bet ween
t he new soundt rack and charact ers. St andard language is chosen by t he
subt it ler rat her t han m ore colloquial form s when t his const it ut es a way of
short ening t he t ranslat ion ( + - + ) . Som et im es t he denot at ive m eaning is
conveyed at t he expense of t he speaker’s idiosyncrasies. I n t hose
exam ples where t here is no equivalent expression in French, bot h t he
subt it led and t he dubbed versions adhere t o t he denot at ive m eaning ( + - ) . The t ranslat ions becom e neut ral and less expressive. The dubbed
version becom es st ronger when t his allows a bet t er fit bet ween t he lip
m ovem ent s of t he act ors and t he t ranslat ion ( - - + ) . At t im es, a shift in
regist er occurs in bot h versions whilst respect ing t he overall port rayal of a
part icular charact er ( - + + ) .
A change in regist er t ends t o occur when const raint s specific t o subt it ling
and dubbing arise or an equivalent expression in French does not exist .
However, t he subt it ler m ight use colloquialism s t o t ranslat e st andard
language as a m eans t o com pensat e for t he suppression of fam iliarit y
elsewhere and t hereby at t ain coherence on a general, global level. I n t he
dubbed version, a change in regist er oft en corresponds t o a need for
synchronisat ion. Different regist ers provide a palet t e from which various
solut ions can be sought . I t should be not ed t hat , t hrough int onat ion,
st ress and volum e, t he voice of t he dubbing act or can com pensat e, t o a
cert ain ext ent , for m eaning which has been changed or lost .
I t is not possible t o convey t he m ult iple m eanings of each and every
ut t erance but t he spirit of t he ent ire audiovisual t ext , com posed not only
of language but also ot her visual and audit ory effect s, needs t o serve as a
guide for t he t ranslat or in his choices. 9
62
REFEREN CES
Arm st rong, Nigel ( 200 4) . " Voicing 'The Sim psons' from English t o French: a st ory of
variable success." The Journal of Specialised Translat ion [ online] , 2. Available from :
www.j ost rans.org/ issue02/ art icles/ n_arm st rong.ht m ( accessed 5 February 2004) .
Aust er, Paul ( 1995) . 'Sm oke' and 'Blue in t he Face': t wo film s. London/ Bost on: Faber and
Faber.
Cheshire, Jenny & Bell, Allan ( 2003) . " Regist er and st yle." I nt ernat ional Ency clopedia of
Linguist ics volu m e 3, ( second edit ion) . William Frawley ( ed.) . Oxford: Oxford Universit y
Press, 454- 459.
Dubois, Jean et al. ( 1994 ) . Dict ionnaire de linguist ique et des sciences du langage. Paris:
Larousse.
Fawcet t , Pet er ( 1997 ) . Translat ion and Langu age. Linguist ic Theories
Translat ion Theories Explained. Manchest er: St Jerom e Publishing.
Explained.
Fawcet t , Pet er ( 2003) . " The Manipulat ion of Language and Cult ure in Film Translat ion."
María Calzada Pérez ( ed) Apropos of I deology. Manchest er: St Jerom e Publishing, 145163.
Gadet , Françoise ( 1996 ) . " Niveaux de langue et variat ion int rinsèque." Palim psest es 10,
17- 40.
Goris, Olivier ( 1993) . " The Quest ion of French Dubbing: Towards a Fram e for Syst em at ic
I nvest igat ion." Target 5( 2) , 169- 190.
Hat im , Basil & Mason, I an ( 19 90) . Discourse an d t he Translat or. New York: Longm an I nc.
Hat im , Basil & Mason, I an ( 19 97) . The Translat or as Com m unicat or. London: Rout ledge.
Hat im , Basil & Munday, Jerem y ( 20 04) . Translat ion: an advanced resour ce book. London:
Rout ledge.
Herbst , Thom as ( 1997) . " Dubbing and t he Dubbed Text - St yle and Cohesion: Text ual
Charact erist ics of a Special Form of Translat ion." Anna Trosborg ( ed.) ( 1997) . Text
Typology
and Translat ion. Benj am ins Translat ion Library 26. Am st erdam / Philadelphia:
John Benj am ins.
Hewson, Lance ( 1996) . " Le Niveau de langue repère." Palim psest es 10, 77- 92.
Larousse French- English, English- French Dict ionary . Unabridged Edit ion. Larousse 1994.
Mailh ac, Jean- Pierre ( 20 00a) . " Levels of Speech and Gram m ar When Translat ing Bet ween
English and French." Christ ina Shäffner & Beverly Adab ( eds) ( 2000) . Dev eloping
Translat ion Com pet ence. Benj am in s Translat ion Library 38. Am st erdam : John
Benj am ins, 33- 50.
Mailh ac, Jean- Pierre ( 20 00b) . " Subt it ling and Dubbing, for Bet t er or Worse? The English
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Mart inez, Xènia ( 2004) " Film dubbing, it s process and t ranslat ion." Pilar Orero ( ed.) ,
Topics in Audiovisual Translat ion. Benj am ins Translat ion Library 56. Am st erdam /
Philadelphia: John Benj am ins, 3- 7.
63
Pet t it , Zoë ( 2 000) . Subt it ling and dubbing: I nt eract ion bet w een language and im age in a
select ion of audiovisual genres. PhD t hesis. Universit y Paul Valéry at Mont pellier, France.
Pet t it , Zoë ( 2 004) . " The Audio- visual Text : Subt it ling and Dubbin g Different Genres."
Yves Gam bier, ( ed.) ( 2004) Audiovisual Tran slat ion. Mont r éal : Les Presses de
l’Universit é de Mont réal. Special issue of Met a 49 ( 1) , 25- 38.
Sanders, Carol ( 1996) . " Pourquoi qu'on dit des choses et pas d'aut res? Translat ing
Queneau's français parlé in 'Zazie dans le m ét ro' and 'Le Chiendent '.'' Palim psest es 10,
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Savova, Lilia ( 2005) . " Regist er." New Encyclopedia of Linguist ics, volum e 2. Philipp
St razny ( ed.) ( 2005 ) . New York: Taylor & Francis, 898- 899.
Trosborg, Anna ( ed) ( 199 7) . " Text t ypology: Regist er, Genre and Text Type." Text
Typology and Translat ion. Benj am ins Translat ion Library 26. Am st erdam / Philadelphia:
John Benj am ins, 3- 24.
Vanderschelden, I sabelle ( 2001) . " Le sous- t it rage des classes sociales dans La vie est un
long fleuve t ranqu ille." Michel Ballard ( ed.) ( 2001) Oralit é et Tradu ct ion. Arras: Art ois
Presses Universit é, 361- 379 .
Au diovisu a l sou r ce s
Cam pion, Jane ( Direct or) ( 1992) . The Piano [ Mot ion pict ure] . Aust ralia: Miram ax.
Wang, Wayne ( Direct or) ( 1 995) . Blue in t he Face [ Mot ion pict ure] . USA: Miram ax.
Wang, Wayne ( Direct or) ( 1 995) . Sm oke [ Mot ion pict ure] . USA: Miram ax.
Zoë Pet t it is current ly Lect urer in French at t he Universit y of Greenwich in
London. She obt ained a doct orat e in audiovisual t ranslat ion ( 2000) from
Paul Valéry Universit y, Mont pellier I I I , France. Her research int erest s
include int erlingual subt it ling and dubbing, sem iot ics, verbal and nonverbal com m unicat ion. She can be cont act ed at [email protected]
1
See Trosborg ( 1 997) w ho relat es regist er t o genre and t ext t ype. Ot her pert inent
cont ribut ions include Sanders ( 1996) , Gadet ( 1 996) and Hewson ( 1996) in a special issue
of Palim psest es dedicat ed t o t ranslat ion, regist re and niveau de langue.
2
The fine line which separat es t he t wo is illust rat ed by t he ent ries in t he unabridged
edit ion of t he Larousse French/ English dict ionary in which niveau de langue is t ranslat ed
as " regist er" and som ewhat perversely, regist re as bot h " regist er" and " level of
language" .
3
Hat im and Mason ( 199 0: 40- 42, 1997 : 97- 110) discuss t he n ot ion of regist er at lengt h
explaining how t hese different fact ors affect t he use of one regist er over anot her.
4
Mart inez ( 2 004: 5- 6) describes t he du bbing process and sh ows t hat t he original
t ranslat ion m ay be m odified at various st ages. Proof- reading, synchronisat ion, and even
im provisat ion on t he part of t he act ors, m ay affect t he final dubbed version: " [ …] t he
product of t h e t ranslat or's work is oft en not t he final product but a sort of draft v ersion
which is polished and adj ust ed t o t he n eeds and dem ands of t h e m edium " ( p. 7) .
5
Alt hough t hese are t he reasons why t he film s were chosen in relat ion t o language
regist er, t hey have a nu m ber of ot her int erest in g feat ures which lead t o t heir select ion in
a m ore ext ensive analysis of t he subt it led and dubbed versions ( cf. Pet t it : 2000) .
64
6
I n Arm st rong's ( 2004) st udy of t he dubbed version of The Sim psons, a popular
Am erican anim at ed cart oon show, he reveals how t he t ranslat or uses slang as a way t o
com pensat e for m arked social- regional language in t he original English which has no
equivalent in French. Sanders ( 1996: 42) also discusses how a " different linguist ic level"
can be used as a m eans of com pensat ion.
7
It is highly probable t hat t he explet ive was added by t he person respon sible for lip
synchronisat ion.
8
This collocat ion is also used in t he expression forcer quelqu'un à plier bagage 't o send
som eone packing' ( Larousse) .
9
Ot her fact ors m ight include regulat ions im posed by t he com pany sponsoring t he
t ranslat ion, t he channel wh ich will broadcast t he program m e, t he t im e it will be shown
et c
65

- Greenwich Academic Literature Archive

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Documenti analoghi

` l ` l are 1 ec ore au our 01 CENT MAISONS· D`AUJOURD`HUI

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Le Valais aussi à ses idoles, désormais