The importance of traditional uses and nutraceutical aspects of
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The importance of traditional uses and nutraceutical aspects of
This article was downloaded by: [University of Perugia] On: 26 February 2013, At: 01:32 Publisher: Taylor & Francis Informa Ltd Registered in England and Wales Registered Number: 1072954 Registered office: Mortimer House, 37-41 Mortimer Street, London W1T 3JH, UK Plant Biosystems - An International Journal Dealing with all Aspects of Plant Biology: Official Journal of the Societa Botanica Italiana Publication details, including instructions for authors and subscription information: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/tplb20 The importance of traditional uses and nutraceutical aspects of some edible wild plants in human nutrition: the case of Umbria (central Italy) a b a Aldo Ranfa , Angela Maurizi , Bruno Romano & Mara Bodesmo a a Dipartimento di Biologia Applicata - Sezione di Botanica Ambientale e Applicata, Università degli Studi di Perugia, Italy b Dipartimento di Scienze Economico-Estimative e degli Alimenti, Sezione di Chimica Bromatologica, Biochimica, Fisiologia e Nutrizione, Università degli Studi di Perugia, Italy Accepted author version posted online: 29 Jan 2013.Version of record first published: 25 Feb 2013. To cite this article: Aldo Ranfa , Angela Maurizi , Bruno Romano & Mara Bodesmo (2013): The importance of traditional uses and nutraceutical aspects of some edible wild plants in human nutrition: the case of Umbria (central Italy), Plant Biosystems - An International Journal Dealing with all Aspects of Plant Biology: Official Journal of the Societa Botanica Italiana, DOI:10.1080/11263504.2013.770805 To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/11263504.2013.770805 PLEASE SCROLL DOWN FOR ARTICLE Full terms and conditions of use: http://www.tandfonline.com/page/terms-and-conditions This article may be used for research, teaching, and private study purposes. Any substantial or systematic reproduction, redistribution, reselling, loan, sub-licensing, systematic supply, or distribution in any form to anyone is expressly forbidden. The publisher does not give any warranty express or implied or make any representation that the contents will be complete or accurate or up to date. 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Plant Biosystems, 2013 http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/11263504.2013.770805 The importance of traditional uses and nutraceutical aspects of some edible wild plants in human nutrition: the case of Umbria (central Italy) ALDO RANFA1, ANGELA MAURIZI2, BRUNO ROMANO1, & MARA BODESMO1 1 Dipartimento di Biologia Applicata - Sezione di Botanica Ambientale e Applicata, Università degli Studi di Perugia, Italy and Dipartimento di Scienze Economico-Estimative e degli Alimenti, Sezione di Chimica Bromatologica, Biochimica, Fisiologia e Nutrizione, Università degli Studi di Perugia, Italy Downloaded by [University of Perugia] at 01:32 26 February 2013 2 Abstract This study aimed to show how the importance of edible wild plants regards not only a question of uses linked to folk traditions but also their value in human nutrition. Data on the use of 50 species were collected through informed consent semistructured interviews with local informants. They were eaten raw in salads (43%), boiled (35%), as ravioli filling (10%), fried without or with eggs (8%) and in vegetable soup (4%). Furthermore, the nutraceutical analysis centred on four of the commonly used wild edible plants demonstrates how these species contain many of the so-called minor nutrients, such as antioxidising vitamins and polyphenols, which were highest in Sanguisorba minor L. Keywords: Antioxidant properties, edible wild plants, ethnobotanical analysis, traditional use Introduction The concept of “food as medicine” (Hippocrates, 400 B.C.) has existed since ancient times, and man has lived in close relationship with his environment for thousands of years, learning how to recognise, gather and use the products of the earth not only as food but also for medicinal purposes. Indeed, gathering wild edible plants and hunting were primitive man’s means of survival right from the earliest of times (Bermùdez et al. 2005). Wild plants have been object of numerous studies as many possess new and unusual therapeutic and nutritional properties (Etkin & Ross 1982; Etkin 1994; Moreno-Black et al. 1996; Pieroni 1999; Vitalini et al. 2006; Pardo de Santayana et al. 2007), and the beneficial effects of the Mediterranean diet on human health are well documented, such as high fibre content, vitamins with an antioxidant function, total polyphenols, vitamins and minerals (see Cao et al. 1993; Guerrero Guil et al. 1999; Grivetti & Ogle 2000; Simopoulos 2004, Schaffer et al. 2005; Ranfa et al. 2011; Vanzani et al. 2011). Defining the content of these components is essential because of their antioxidant functions (Luterotti et al. 1998; Redi 1999), indeed at present, oxidant stress is known to be responsible for some forms of cancer (Cohen et al. 2000), as well as for degenerative pathologies such as those affecting the cardiocirculatory system (hypertension, atherosclerosis, heart attack and stroke; Polidori et al. 1998; Yang et al. 2001) and the autoimmune system (Iborra & Palacio Martinez 2005), with repercussions on the central nervous system thus leading to Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s disease (Linert & Jameson 2000; Sudha et al. 2003). A renewed interest in the use of edible wild plants is closely linked to the rediscovery of local traditions (Hadjichambis et al. 2008), food habits and the role that these species have played in different cultures or ethnic groups (Ladio & Lozada 2003; Leonti et al. 2006). Recently, they have become the subject of local fairs and markets (Figure 1(A)) where they are sold as culinary specialities and also of thematic courses, field trips and specialist exhibitions to satisfy the curiosity of the general public (see Figure 1(B) – (E)). Correspondence: M. Bodesmo, Dipartimento di Biologia Applicata – Sezione di Botanica Ambientale e Applicata, Università degli Studi di Perugia, Borgo XX Giugno, Perugia 06121, Italy. Tel: þ39 0755856441. Fax: þ39 0755856069. Email: [email protected] q 2013 Società Botanica Italiana Downloaded by [University of Perugia] at 01:32 26 February 2013 2 A. Ranfa et al. Figure 1. Local social gatherings and markets in Spello (Pg) aimed at promoting knowledge of edible wild plants. In Italy, the first ethnobotanical studies were carried out in the second half of the twentieth century. Then from the 1970s, a large amount of research was done in various regions of Italy, focalising mainly on the use of wild plants in folk medicine, human consumption, magic rituals and ethno-veterinary practices (Caneva et al. 1997; Guarrera et al. 2005; Guarrera et al. 2006; Ghirardini et al. 2007; Guarrera & Leporatti 2007; Camangi et al. 2009; Cornara et al. 2009; Guarrera et al. 2009). In Umbria, few authors have looked into these questions, and those who have done so have dealt mainly with the rediscovery of local traditional medicinal and nutritional uses of some wild plants (Menghini et al. 1975; Leporatti et al. 1985; Nardelli 1987; Pezzotta 1994; Moreno-Black et al. 1996; Dalla Ragione & Dalla Ragione 2003; Ranfa 2004; Parziani et al. 2005; Ranfa 2005; Ranfa et al. 2011). This study takes the point of view that the rediscovery of traditional uses of edible wild plants is an important facet of the reappraisal of local origins and underlines how a renewed interest in their nutritional uses has arisen, given their high nutraceutical properties. Indeed, the main objective was to demonstrate the importance of edible wild plants as a reserve of genetic resources capable of satisfying both present and future biotechnological and agro-industry needs as well as of improving daily diet and preventing degenerative processes, thanks to their high antioxidant nutrient content. Material and methods The study was conducted in Umbria, Central Italy, a region where natural and semi-natural areas still survive in which many edible wild plants can be Figure 2. The four edible wild plants analysed in the nutraceutical analysis: (A) B. perennis L., (B) B. erucago L., (C) C. juncea L. and (D) S. minor Scop. found, and where, in small rural communities, traditional uses of these species are still very much alive (see Figure 1 – Study area). This study began with an ethnobotanical analysis by means of an ad hoc semi-structured interview involving 138 females and 68 males, with median age of 76 years. They were selected from among the elderly population in rural areas who still retain knowledge of traditional uses, having spent their lives as farm workers, thus acquiring survival skills and practical knowledge by gathering, preparing and eating wild plants throughout the year. Some informants were able to provide citations on various wild plants. Most of the interviewees belonged to the female group, which still retains the most information concerning the heritage of domestic remedies. Quite often, the interviews were conducted in the fields. For species not available at the moment of the interview, informants were asked to recognise these species by means of a plant atlas. They were asked to provide information on the local names, the alimentary use, the parts used and the traditions connected with the commonest wild plants in the region. The nutraceutical research centred on four of the most commonly used wild edible species in Umbria which belong to different botanical families and have different nutraceutical properties: Bellis perennis L., Bunias erucago L., Chondrilla juncea L. and Sanguisorba minor Scop (Figure 2(A) –(D)), respectively. These four species were chosen because they belong to the Compositae, Cruciferae and Rosaceae families which are among the most representative and well known in traditional folk recipes and are the best known and most widely used, both raw and Downloaded by [University of Perugia] at 01:32 26 February 2013 Uses and nutraceutical aspects of wild plants cooked, in Umbria (see Table I) (Ranfa 2004, 2005; Marioli 2010; Ranfa et al. 2011). Various samples of the four species were collected, and were analysed with a Stereomicroscope SX45 and were determined according to the Checklist of the Italian Vascular Flora (Conti et al. 2005, 2007). The authors’ names were standardised according to Brummitt and Powell (1992). All the exsiccatae of the aforementioned species are preserved in the “Erbario PERU” of the Università degli Studi di Perugia. To determine the nutraceutical aspects, the various determinations were carried out in triplicate on a pool of fresh samples for each of the four species collected in Spring and Autumn in Umbria, using the traditional methods described in literature, Official Methods of Analysis of Association of Official Analytical Chemists (AOAC) INTERNATIONAL 1990 or ISTISAN 1996/34, and the most recent analytical techniques (Luterotti et al. 1998; Redi 1999; Burini & Coli 2003). In this way, apart from the classical chemical percentage composition, the other so-called minor components were determined which have been difficult to define until recently. Particular attention was paid to defining the principal components with antioxidant functions and total antioxidant capacity using the ORAC method (Oxygen Radical Absorbance Capacity, USDA; Ou et al. 2001). The mineral content was determined with the system of flame sampling by the atomic emission spectrographic method (as described in AOAC method, 2006, 953.01) using the PFP7 Flame Photometer, Jenway Techne, Inc., (Jemway Techne Inc., Burlington, NJ, USA), and by atomic absorption spectrophotometer (AA-6800, Shimadzu Corporation, Chyoda – Ku, Tokyo, Japan), according to the AOAC method, 2006, 975.03. All data were processed using the Star version 4.10 software package and, where necessary, some integration corrections were made manually. The statistical analysis of the data was carried out using the Statistical Analysis System (release 8.1, SAS Insitute Inc., Cary, NC, USA). Results Ethnobotanical analysis The analysis revealed that the most well-known and widely used edible wild plants in Umbria belong mainly to the Compositae family, followed by the Cruciferae family. The main use was as food (73%), followed by medicinal (12%) and veterinary (2%) according to local habits and customs handed down from one generation to the next. The plants were mainly used in raw salad (43%), boiled (35%), as side dishes or in ravioli fillings 3 (10%), fried without or with eggs (8%) or in vegetable soup (4%). In most cases, it was uncommon to find the use of a single species, as a mixture was preferred to balance the different flavours (Figure 3). The data collected during the interviews provided information on the use of 50 species among the most common edible wild plants in Umbria, as well as local names (Table I). The following is a description of some of the most common uses: in salads, the sweeter herbs such as “grespigni” – sow thistle (Sonchus L. spl.), “piantaggine” – plantain (Plantago lanceolata L.) and “borragine” – borage (Borago officinalis L.), mitigate the bitterness of “cicoria” – chickory (Cichorium intybus L. s.l.), “pisciacane” – dandelion (Taraxacum officinale group) and “erba brusca” – bristly ox-tongue [Helminthotheca echioides (L.) Holub]. In raw salads, there is a mixture of “pimpinella” – salad burnet (S. minor Scop. s.l.), “raponzolo” – bellflower (Campanula rapunculus L.), pimpinellone (Tordylium apulum L.), “caccialepre” [Reichardia picroides (L.) Roth], “carota selvatica” – wild carrot (Daucus carota L. s.l.), “erba bussola” – prickly lettuce (Lactuca serriola L.) and “borsa del pastore” – shepherd’s purse [Capsella bursa-pastoris (L.) Medik. subsp. bursa-pastoris ]. Many species are used as condiments in pasta and rice dishes, such as “ortica” – stinging nettles (Urtica dioica L. subsp. dioica), “strigoli” – bladder campion [Silene vulgaris (Moench) Garcke s.l.] and “asparago selvatico” – wild asparagus (Asparagus acutifolius L.). These species are also used to give a distinctive flavour to omelettes and soups (see Table I). Nutraceutical analysis All four species analysed showed the presence of all the dietary energetic principles, although in different concentrations. After water, carbohydrates made up the greater part with values that range from 1.0% in B. perennis to 6.0% in S. minor; intermediate values were found in C. juncea and B. erucago, which contained 2.0% and 3.0%, respectively (Table II). Protein content ranged from 1.4% in B. perennis to 3.8 g/100 g of edible portion in S. minor, with C. juncea (1.9 g/100 g) and B. erucago (2.2 g/100 g) in an intermediate position. The total fat content was very low in all four species, below 1.0%. The total water content varied from 76.2% to 87.8% while the total ash content ranged from 1.8 g/100 g in C. juncea to 5.3 g/100 g in B. perennis. Fibre content ranged from 5.8% in C. juncea to 10.5% in S. minor. It is interesting to note mineral content (see Table III). Iron content, especially in B. perennis and B. erucago, was much higher than in meat, although Cruciferae Liliaceae Liliaceae Liliaceae Compositae Boraginaceae Cruciferae Campanulaceae Alliaria petiolata (M.Bieb.) Cavara & Grande Allium neapolitanum Cirillo Allium triquetrum Ten. A. acutifolius L. B. perennis L. B. officinalis L. B. erucago L. C. rapunculus L. Calamintha nepeta (L.) Savi s.l. Valerianaceae Compositae Compositae Ranunculaceae C. intybus L. s.l. Clematis vitalba L. Crepis sancta (L.) Babc. subsp. sancta Cruciferae Compositae H. echioides (L.) Holub Cruciferae Compositae Umbelliferae Crepis vesicaria L. s.l. D. carota L. s.l. Diplotaxis erucoides (L.) DC. subsp. erucoides Diplotaxis tenuifolia (L.) DC. Compositae Cruciferae Cruciferae Cardamine hirsuta L. C. bursa-pastoris (L.) Medik. subsp. bursa-pastoris Centranthus ruber (L.) DC. subsp. ruber C. juncea L. Labiatae Botanical family Scientific names Maraiuole, ruchetta violacea, ruchettone Rucola, rucoletta, rucoletta di campo, ruchetta selvatica Aspraggine volgare, erba brusca, erba bruscia, spraggine Clematide, vitabbie Crepide, dolcetta, radicchiella di terrasanta Cota, crepide vescicosa, radicchiella vescicosa, radicchio scoltellato Carota selvatica Valeriana rossa Mastrici, pioletta, piole Cicoria, cicorietta, radicchio selvatico, radici amare Raponzolo, ramponzolo, raperonzolo, rapunzoli Calamento, mentuccia comune, nepitella selvatica Billeri primaticcio, cardamine Borsa di pastore, borsacchina, capsella Borragine, boragine Cascellora, cascellore comune, cotecacchie, navone selvatico Alliaria comune, erba alliaria Aglio napoletano Aglio angolare, aglio trigono, aglio selvatico Asparago, asparago dei boschi Margheritina, pratolina Local names Leaves Leaves Young leaves Young leaves Whole aerial parts, roots Young leaves Young shoots Young leaves Leaves, young shoots Leaves, whole aerial parts, leaves stalks, young shoots Young leaves Leaves, whole aerial parts, young shoots Young leaves and flowers Leaves Leaves, young shoots, flowers Leaves, roots or rootstocks, shaft, young shoots, whole aerial parts Young shoots Leaves, bulbs Leaves, young and seed Leaves, bulbs Part(s) used Boiled Raw in salads, vegetable soup Raw in salads, boiled Raw in salads, boiled Raw in salads, boiled Raw in salads, boiled Raw in salad, boiled Raw in salads Boiled, raw in salads, ravioli filling Fried in fat, without or with beaten eggs (“Frittata”) Raw in salad, vegetable soup Raw in salads, boiled, vegetable soup Raw in salads, boiled Raw in salads, boiled, radice cruda in insalata Raw, in salads, fried in fat, without or with beaten eggs (“Frittata”), ravioli filling, boiled Raw-salad, boiled Fried in fat, without or with beaten eggs (“Frittata”), boiled Raw-salad, boiled Raw-salad Preparation Table I. Fifty species of locally used edible wild plants: local names, parts used, preparation and number of citations. Downloaded by [University of Perugia] at 01:32 26 February 2013 3 1 2 2 1 1 2 8 1 13 5 2 2 9 14 6 5 12 2 1 3 Number of citations Digestive properties Diuretic to refresh the kidneys and very effective treatment for rheumatism Some medicinal use 4 A. Ranfa et al. L. Cruciferae Nasturtium officinale R. Br. Subsp. officinale Plantaginaceae Portulaceaceae P. lanceolata L. Portulaca oleracea L. s.l. Rhagadiolus stellatus (L.) Gaertn. Pimpinella, pimpinellone Strigoli, stricoli Polygonaceae Rosaceae Caryophyllaceae Compositae Compositae Compositae Rumex acetosella L. s.l. S. minor Scop. S.l. S. vulgaris (Moench) Garcke s.l. Sonchus asper (L.) Hill s.l. Sonchus oleraceus L. T. officinale (group) Crespigno spinoso, crespignola Gruspigno, cruspino, crispigno, cruspigno, grespigno, crespigno Pisciacane, piscialletto, soffione, dente di leone, dendelion Acetosella, romice acetosella Acetosa, romice acetosa Polygonaceae Compositae Papavero comune, rosolaccio Vetriola comune Aspraggine comune, erba brusca Plantago, lanciuola, lingua di cane Porcacchia, porcellana Erba cornetta, radicchio lirato, ragaggiolo, raggiolo Caccialepre, scaccialepre, grattalingua Malva Crescione d’acqua, crescione delle fontane, crescione di sorgente Trenette, trinciatella, radicchio selvatico Costole d’asino, costolina giuncolina, ingrassaporci, piattello Lattuga dei boschi Lattuga perenne, lattuga rupestre Lattuga selvatica Local names R. picroides (L.) Roth Rumex acetosa subsp. acetosa L. Compositae Picris hieracioides L. s.l. Compositae Papaveraceae Urticaceae Papaver rhoeas subsp. rhoeas Parietaria officinalis L. L. Malvaceae Compositae Compositae Compositae Compositae Compositae Botanical family Malva sylvestris subsp. sylvestris L. Hypochaeris radicata L. Lactuca muralis (L.) Gaertn. Lactuca perennis L. subsp. perennis L. serriola L. Hyoseris radiata subsp. radiata Scientific names Table I – continued Leaves, whole aerial parts, young shoots, shaft Leaves, whole aerial parts, young shoots, shaft, flowers Young leaves Young leaves Leaves, whole aerial parts, young shoots Whole aerial parts, young shoots Young leaves Young leaves Leaves, whole aerial parts, flowers, roots Leaves, whole aerial parts Young leaves, seed Young leaves, young shoots Leaves Boiled, raw in salads Boiled, Raw in salads Raw in salad, boiled Raw in salads, boiled Risotto, fried with eggs (Frittata) Vegetable soup Raw in salads, boiled, vegetable soup, ravioli filling Raw in salads, boiled Boiled, raw in salads Boiled, raw in salads Boiled, in salads Boiled Raw in salads Vegetable soup, ravioli filling, raw in salads, seed in bread and cookies Boiled, vegetable soup Infusions, decoctions Raw in salads, boiled Raw in salads Raw in salads, boiled Raw in salads, vegetable soup Young leaves Young leaves Young leaves Leaves, leaves stalks Raw in salads, boiled Preparation Young leaves Part(s) used Downloaded by [University of Perugia] at 01:32 26 February 2013 25 12 8 8 15 2 2 16 3 6 1 4 5 6 3 2 3 5 5 1 3 Number of citations Remedy for mouth ulcers Depurative and diuretic properties Insect bites or as a remedy for mouth ulcers Digestive properties Infusions for the relief of heartburn and indigestion Some medicinal use Uses and nutraceutical aspects of wild plants 5 Botanical family Umbelliferae Compositae Compositae Compositae Urticaceae Scientific names T. apulum L. Tragopogon pratensis L. s.l. Tragopogon porrifolius L. s.l. Urospermum dalechampii (L.) F.W. Schmidt Urtica dioica L. subsp. dioica Table I – continued Ortica Pimpinellone, pimpinella vellutata, zampa d’oca, saporitella Baciapreti, barba di becco comune, barba di prete, salsefica Barba di becco violetta, raperonzolo selvatico, salsefica Cicoria matta, grugno, grugno amaro, grugnola Local names Leaves, whole aerial parts Leaves, young shoots, roots, whole aerial parts, roots Roots, young leaves Roots, young leaves, shaft Leaves, whole aerial parts Part(s) used Boiled, raw in salads Boiled, ravioli filling, risotti, fried with eggs (frittata) Raw in salads, boiled Raw in salads, boiled Raw in salads Preparation Downloaded by [University of Perugia] at 01:32 26 February 2013 6 14 2 1 9 Number of citations Excellent remedy for dysmenorrhoea Some medicinal use 6 A. Ranfa et al. Uses and nutraceutical aspects of wild plants 7 Downloaded by [University of Perugia] at 01:32 26 February 2013 except for S. minor, for which the content in 100 g satisfied 20% of daily ascorbic acid requirement. Total polyphenol content varied greatly from rather low in C. juncea to quite high in the other species, particularly in S. minor (258 mg/100 of edible parts), especially when the high water content of these types of samples was taken into consideration. The ORAC method results are given in Table V. S. minor showed the highest values, followed by B. erucago, C. juncea and B. perennis. Just how important these data are can be seen when considering that these values are similar to, if not at times higher than, those of some cultivated plants such as cabbage, carrots, celery, fennel, lettuce, courgettes and tomatoes. Figure 3. Edible wild plants are used in Umbrian cooking: raw in salads (43%), boiled (35%), in ravioli fillings (10%) and fried (8%). its inorganic form and bioavailability probably make intestinal absorption difficult. Potassium, calcium and magnesium contents were also high, while phosphorus content was very low, as was sodium content, a positive point for its effect on blood pressure (Table III). Table IV shows among antioxidants vitamins, high concentrations of b-carotene (pro-vitamin A) and vitamin E and very low values of vitamin C, except in part for S. minor. All four species showed excellent b-carotene content; in fact, 100 g of B. perennis, C. juncea and S. minor contained, respectively, 60%, 51% and 80% of the daily recommended intake, while B. erucago exceeded it by about 40%. There were also notable concentrations of vitamin E: 100 g of B. perennis, B. erucago, C. juncea and S. minor contained 46%, 44%, 42% and 78%, respectively, of daily recommended intake in a diet of about 2000 kcal, with about 17 g of polyunsaturated fatty acids. On the other hand, there was very low vitamin C content (undetermined in two species) Discussion This study showed that gathering and consuming edible wild plants are still very much alive in Umbria as one aspect of an age-old ethnobotanical folk tradition (see Table I), although in most cases their nutritional value is unknown. It was found that the quality and quantity of the various components of the four species under examination could make an excellent contribution to balancing and rationalising diet and preventing metabolic pathologies. This study demonstrates how edible wild plants contain many of the so-called minor nutrients (because they are found in small quantities), such as polyphenols and antioxidising vitamins which can further improve a diet which is already balanced, thus offering protection against degenerative processes. Furthermore, various authors have shown how some species could be exploited in breeding programmes to develop genotypes with putative positive effects on human health, thanks to their high tocopherol, fatty acid and phytosterol contents (Scialabba et al. 2010), not to mention anticancer, antibacterial and antiviral properties with possible applications in the field of medicine (Minutolo et al. 2012). And these new applications are possible thanks to the presence of adequate antioxidant components that can combat Table II. Chemical composition (g/100 g of edible parts) and energy content. Water Protein Lipids Carbohydrates Ashes Dietary fibre Energy (kcal) Energy (kj) B. perennis B. erucago C. juncea S. minor 84.2 ^ 0.93 1.4 ^ 0.05 0.4 ^ 0.02 1.0 ^ 0.04 5.3 ^ 0.13 7.6 ^ 0.26 13.0 54.4 83.1 ^ 1.00 2.2 ^ 0.07 0.4 ^ 0.03 3.0 ^ 0.10 2.9 ^ 0.16 8.2 ^ 0.29 24.0 100.4 87.8 ^ 0.88 1.9 ^ 0.07 0.5 ^ 0.04 2.0 ^ 0.08 1.8 ^ 0.11 5.8 ^ 0.32 19.6 82.0 76.2 ^ 1.30 3.8 ^ 0.13 0.8 ^ 0.04 6.0 ^ 0.22 2.2 ^ 0.09 10.5 ^ 0.41 44.9 187.9 Note: S. minor has the highest protein content while B. perennis has the highest ash content. 8 A. Ranfa et al. Table III. Mineral content in wild plants (mg/100 g per edible parts). Iron Calcium Phosphorus Sodium Potassium Magnesium B. perennis B. erucago C. juncea S. minor 40.8 444 18.3 56 2053 123 24.1 425 18.2 6.1 2209 216 4.9 159 12.7 3.8 1277 100 5.1 283 21.9 21 967 282 Note: B. perennis has the highest iron and calcium contents. Downloaded by [University of Perugia] at 01:32 26 February 2013 Table IV. Concentrations of b-carotene (pro-vitamin A), vitamin E and vitamin C. B. perennis B. erucago C. juncea S. minor 2537 423 3101 1.3 49 5774 962 2942 , LQ 86 2134 356 2728 , LQ 23 3339 556 5226 9.2 258 b-Carotene (mg/100 g), m Vitamin A (mg Ret Eq/100 g) Vitamin E (mg/100 g), m Vitamin C (mg/100 g), m Total polyphenols (mg/100 g), m the effect of free radicals. Since, at present, the amount necessary to maintain this equilibrium is estimated to be about 5000 ORAC units and considering that health authorities recommend the consumption at least five portions of fruit and vegetables a day (Istituto Nazionale di Ricerca per gli Alimenti e la Nutrizione 2003), the wild plants dealt with in this study could make a notable contribution towards this objective. Many of the macro and micro nutrients contained in these wild plants merit more attention, but the lack of an adequate national and regional nutrient database limits available knowledge, which is, at present, much less than that relevant to cultivated species (Vincetti et al. 2008). In addition to antioxidant vitamins, these plants are rich in phenols and other compounds which increase their antioxidant capacity. Therefore, further studies are essential to analyse total antioxidant capacity and promote knowledge about them with a view to commercialisation. With the introduction of new pre-packed foods (Bhattarai et al. 2009), knowledge of traditional uses of edible wild plants is disappearing in many parts of the world. This is why this research aims at focusing attention on these species and their importance for human nutrition, as knowledge and rediscovery of recipes in human and animal diet could represent an economic potential (Guarrera et al. 2006). It is well known that wild plants continue to make up a significant part of the world food basket and their importance will increase due to increased pressure resulting from greater agricultural production (Bharucha & Pretty 2010). Conclusion Thanks to their antioxidant properties, it would certainly be worthwhile to foster further study of edible wild plants and to promote commercialisation campaigns, particularly in view of the growing demand for natural antioxidants by the food industry. Human health in general would benefit greatly from a reconsideration of these plants because they represent a naturally occurring, easy to obtain source of powerful vegetable antioxidants. According to an FAO estimate, wild plants are part of the diet of one billion people worldwide, but as no official markets exist their commercial value has never been evaluated, although their sale represents an important way of integrating income in many countries. Projects to rediscover traditional foods may increase wild plant consumption. The FAO recognises that nutrition and biodiversity converge Table V. ORAC method results: S. minor shows the highest values of total polyphenols. ORAC (mmol TE/100 g) B. perennis B. erucago C. juncea S. minor 221 529 427 904 Uses and nutraceutical aspects of wild plants towards a common goal of food safety and sustainable development and that wild species play a key role in global nutrition safety (FAO 2009). Furthermore, a renewed interest in edible wild plants would stimulate the study of local flora and spread knowledge to preserve local customs and traditions. More extensive knowledge could lead to improved diet in many areas of the Mediterranean area and the Developing World, and in general encourage and promote the use of these species. 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