Università degli Studi di Roma “LA SAPIENZA”
Transcript
Università degli Studi di Roma “LA SAPIENZA”
Università degli Studi di Roma “LA SAPIENZA” Facoltà di Ingegneria Dipartimento di Scienza e Tecnica dell’Informazione Corso di Laurea Specialistica in Ingegneria delle Telecomunicazioni Tesi di Laurea Modelli architetturali per soluzioni di accesso innovative basate sulla convergenza fra reti 3G/4G, DVB-H e WiMAX, in rispetto del Framework IMS Candidato Cioccari Francesca Relatore Chiar.mo Prof. Roberto Cusani Correlatore Ing. Gennaro Galdo CONSEL - Junior Consulting Anno Accademico 2005/2006 Alla mia famiglia Table of Contents TABLE OF CONTENTS INTRODUZIONE...................................................................................................... 1 Il Progetto Wind – “Convergent Access Network”.................................................... 5 Struttura della Tesi ..................................................................................................... 6 CHAPTER ONE 1. TECHNICAL OVERVIEW.............................................................................. 9 1.1 UMTS Release 6 (Universal Mobile Telecommunication System) .......... 11 1.1.1 Introduction........................................................................................ 11 1.1.2 UMTS Services and Features ............................................................ 11 1.1.3 UMTS Architecture ........................................................................... 13 1.1.3.1 Core Network..................................................................................... 14 1.1.3.1.1 CS Domain.................................................................................... 14 1.1.3.1.2 PS Domain .................................................................................... 15 1.1.3.1.3 IP Multimedia subsystem (IMS)................................................... 15 1.1.3.2 UTRAN.............................................................................................. 15 1.1.3.2.1 Radio Access................................................................................. 15 1.1.3.2.2 WCDMA channels........................................................................ 16 1.1.3.3 User Equipment ................................................................................. 17 1.1.4 General Protocol Architecture ........................................................... 18 1.2 Mobile WiMAX (Wireless Interoperability for Microwave Access) [802.16e] ................................................................................................................ 19 1.2.1 Introduction........................................................................................ 19 1.2.2 Features .............................................................................................. 21 1.2.2.1 Physical Layer.................................................................................... 21 1.2.2.1.1 OFDMA ........................................................................................ 21 1.2.2.1.2 Scalable OFDMA ......................................................................... 22 1.2.2.1.3 TDD Frame Structure ................................................................... 23 1.2.2.1.4 Other Advanced PHY Layer Features .......................................... 25 1.2.2.2 MAC Layer ........................................................................................ 26 1.2.2.2.1 Quality of Service ......................................................................... 26 I Table of Contents 1.2.2.2.2 MAC Scheduling Service ............................................................. 27 1.2.2.2.3 Mobility Management................................................................... 28 1.2.2.2.4 Security ......................................................................................... 29 1.2.2.3 Advanced Features of Mobile WiMAX............................................. 30 1.2.2.3.1 Smart Antenna Technologies........................................................ 30 1.2.2.3.2 Fractional Frequency Reuse.......................................................... 31 1.2.2.3.3 Multicast and Broadcast Service (MBS) ...................................... 33 1.2.3 1.3 End-to-End WiMAX Architecture..................................................... 34 DVB-H (Digital Video Broadcasting-Handheld) ...................................... 37 1.3.1 Introduction........................................................................................ 37 1.3.2 Overview of the system ..................................................................... 37 1.3.3 Structure of a DVB-H receiver .......................................................... 39 1.3.4 Standards and Protocol Stack ............................................................ 42 1.3.5 Data Link Layer ................................................................................. 46 1.3.5.1 Time-Slicing ...................................................................................... 47 1.3.5.1.1 Handover Considerations.............................................................. 48 1.3.5.2 MPE-FEC........................................................................................... 49 1.3.6 Physical Layer: .................................................................................. 50 1.3.6.1 4K Mode and In-depth Interleavers ................................................... 50 1.3.6.2 DVB-H Signalling: TPS-bit Signalling ............................................. 51 1.3.7 DVB-H Networks .............................................................................. 51 1.3.7.1 The IP-DataCasting System............................................................... 51 1.3.7.2 Broadcasting Spectrum ...................................................................... 52 1.3.7.3 DVB-H Network Architectures ......................................................... 53 1.3.7.3.1 DVB-H Standalone (Dedicated DVB-H Networks) ..................... 53 1.3.7.3.2 Sharing with DVB-T..................................................................... 54 CHAPTER TWO 2. ACCESS NETWORK ANALYSIS AND COMPARISON FOR UMTS, WiMAX AND DVB-H ............................................................................................. 58 2.1 Introduction................................................................................................ 58 2.2 Access Networks Analysis: UMTS UTRAN............................................. 59 II Table of Contents 2.2.1 Node B functionality.......................................................................... 61 2.2.2 RNC functionality.............................................................................. 61 2.2.3 UTRAN Functions ............................................................................. 63 2.3 Access Networks Analysis: WiMAX ........................................................ 71 2.3.1 Base Station ....................................................................................... 72 2.3.2 ASN GW (Access Service Network Gateway).................................. 73 2.3.3 Functions............................................................................................ 74 2.4 Access Networks Analysis: DVB-H.......................................................... 79 2.4.1 IP Encapsulator .................................................................................. 83 2.4.2 Multiplexer......................................................................................... 83 2.4.3 Modulator........................................................................................... 84 2.4.4 Features .............................................................................................. 84 2.5 Access Networks Comparison ................................................................... 86 2.6 A UNIQUE ARCHITECTURAL BLOCK MODEL FOR ACCESS NETWORK ANALYSIS AND COMPARISON.................................................. 90 2.6.1 Air Interface Control Module ............................................................ 91 2.6.2 Enforcement Module ......................................................................... 91 2.6.3 Decision & Control Module .............................................................. 92 CHAPTER THREE 3. CORE NETWORK: IMS TECHNICAL DESCRIPTION.......................... 93 3.1 Introduction................................................................................................ 93 3.1.1 Why IMS?.......................................................................................... 94 3.1.2 The Introduction of IMS .................................................................... 95 3.2 The Architecture of IMS............................................................................ 96 3.2.1 The HSS and SLF Databases ............................................................. 98 3.2.2 The CSCF .......................................................................................... 98 3.2.2.1 P-CSCF .............................................................................................. 98 3.2.2.2 The I-CSCF........................................................................................ 99 3.2.2.3 The S-CSCF..................................................................................... 100 3.2.3 The AS ............................................................................................. 100 3.2.4 The MRF.......................................................................................... 101 III Table of Contents 3.2.5 The BGCF........................................................................................ 101 3.2.6 The PSTN/CS Gateway ................................................................... 102 3.2.7 Home and Visited Networks............................................................ 102 3.2.8 Identification in the IMS.................................................................. 102 3.2.8.1 Public User Identification ................................................................ 103 3.2.8.2 Private User Identities...................................................................... 103 3.2.8.3 The relation between Public and Private User Identities................. 103 3.2.8.4 Public Service Identities .................................................................. 103 3.2.9 SIM, USIM and ISIM in 3GPP........................................................ 103 3.3 Protocols .................................................................................................. 105 3.3.1 Session Control Protocol ................................................................. 105 3.3.2 Media Plane Protocol....................................................................... 105 3.3.3 Security and Authentication Protocol .............................................. 105 3.4 SIP Protocol ............................................................................................. 106 3.4.1 SIP functionality .............................................................................. 107 3.4.2 SIP Entities ...................................................................................... 108 3.4.3 Messages .......................................................................................... 109 3.4.3.1 Start Line.......................................................................................... 109 3.4.3.2 Headers ............................................................................................ 110 3.4.3.3 Message Body.................................................................................. 110 3.4.4 Management of a SIP session .......................................................... 111 3.4.4.1 Session Establishment and Termination .......................................... 111 3.4.4.2 Call Redirection ............................................................................... 112 3.4.4.3 Call Proxying ................................................................................... 113 3.5 IPv6 .......................................................................................................... 115 3.5.1 A new IP standard............................................................................ 115 3.5.1.1 A New Header ................................................................................. 115 3.5.1.2 Addressing ....................................................................................... 117 3.5.1.2.1 Unicast Addresses....................................................................... 118 3.5.1.2.2 Anycast Addresses ...................................................................... 119 3.5.1.2.3 Multicast Address ....................................................................... 119 3.5.1.3 Mobile in IPv6 ................................................................................. 119 IV Table of Contents 3.5.2 Differences Between IPv4 and IPv6 ................................................ 121 CHAPTER FOUR 4. EDGE NETWORK PROPOSAL FOR UMTS, WiMAX AND DVB-H, AND CONVERGENT ARCHITECTURE ......................................................... 122 4.1 Introduction.............................................................................................. 122 4.2 What is the Edge Network? ..................................................................... 123 4.3 The Edge Network for UMTS Release 6 (PS Domain)........................... 126 4.3.1 Serving GPRS Support Node (SGSN)............................................. 127 4.3.2 Gateway GPRS Support Node (GGSN) .......................................... 128 4.3.3 Data Bases....................................................................................... 129 4.3.3.1 Home Subscriber Server (HSS) ....................................................... 128 4.3.3.2 The Home Location Register (HLR) ............................................... 130 4.3.3.3 The Authentication Centre (AuC).................................................... 130 4.3.3.4 HSS logical functions ...................................................................... 131 4.3.4 The Equipment Identity Register (EIR)........................................... 132 4.3.5 Interfaces.......................................................................................... 133 4.3.5.1 Interface between SGSN and RNS (Iu_PS-interface) ..................... 133 4.3.5.2 Interface between SGSN and HLR (Gr-interface)........................... 133 4.3.5.3 Interface between SGSN and GGSN (Gn- and Gp-interface) ......... 133 4.3.5.4 Signalling Path between GGSN and HLR (Gc-interface) ............... 133 4.3.5.5 Interface between SGSN and EIR (Gf-interface) ............................ 134 4.3.6 Protocol Analysis and Definition..................................................... 134 4.4 The Edge Network for WiMAX .............................................................. 135 4.4.1 CSN-WAG....................................................................................... 136 4.4.2 Interfaces.......................................................................................... 137 4.4.3 Protocol Analysis and Definition..................................................... 138 4.5 4.5.1 4.6 The Edge Network for DVB-H................................................................ 139 Protocol Analysis and Definition..................................................... 141 CONVERGENT ARCHITECTURE PROPOSAL ................................. 143 4.6.1 Edge Network Evolutions................................................................ 146 4.6.2 Conclusions...................................................................................... 150 V Table of Contents APPENDIX A: Implementation ........................................................................... 153 A.1 Introduction.............................................................................................. 153 A.2 Case Pilot of a Convergent Service: m-Advertising Game ..................... 153 A.3 “Mapping” the convergent service on the convergent architecture ......... 155 A.4 Proxy Simulation ..................................................................................... 157 APPENDIX B: Telecommunications Market Overview .................................... 165 B.1 The International Scenario....................................................................... 167 B.2 The Italian Scenario ................................................................................. 168 B.2.1 Players in the Italian Market ............................................................ 168 BIBLIOGRAPHY.................................................................................................. 170 VI Introduzione INTRODUZIONE Il nuovo modo di comunicare sta evolvendo verso l’integrazione, in un'unica struttura, di tutti i servizi che generalmente sono presenti in un’organizzazione (cioè servizi dati, telefonici e video). Il protocollo IP sembra essere ormai la struttura di riferimento per questo nuovo sviluppo tecnologico. I modelli architetturali delle reti attuali, però, prevedono una netta separazione dei servizi voce, video e dati. I servizi sono amministrati generalmente in modo autonomo a livello di cablaggio, di apparati e a livello applicativo. Il nuovo modello di rete, quindi, dovrebbe prevedere una struttura indipendente dalla applicazione, con apparati dotati di caratteristiche multiservizio e flessibilità, adatti a concentrare le diverse tipologie di traffico e convogliarle su canali unici sia in ambito LAN sia WAN. Questa nuova occorrenza sta muovendo i grandi operatori delle telecomunicazioni, e i protagonisti come Nortel, Samsung, Alcatel insieme con quelli del settore del networking come Cisco e 3Com, stanno già avanzando le loro proposte parlando di convergenza.1 Finora, lo sviluppo dei servizi voce, dati e video era avvenuto prevalentemente in modo autonomo e la loro implementazione era gestita, molto spesso, da operatori diversi. Dal punto di vista dell’utente, l’offerta dei servizi telematici era troppo rigida. Dal punto di vista dell’efficienza e dell’ottimizzazione del traffico, una rete dati richiede larghezze di banda decisamente superiore rispetto a quella voce, soprattutto a causa dello sviluppo dei servizi come videoconferenza, video streaming, e-commerce, ecc... La nascita di offerte e soluzioni innovative scaturiscono quasi sempre da nuove esigenze o precise richieste. Nel settore delle telecomunicazioni e del networking si sta assistendo ad una crescita vertiginosa del traffico dati contro un andamento della domanda praticamente costante del traffico voce, tanto che si stanno diffondendo nel mercato soluzioni che trattano la trasmissione voce come un particolare pacchetto dati. Da queste realtà sono nate tecnologie mirate all’ottimizzazione delle architetture di reti con l’obiettivo di trasportare su un unico 1 “Le reti convergenti”, Matteo Santucci 1 Introduzione supporto video, voce e dati implementando, cioè, una rete convergente. D’altro canto è ormai largamente riconosciuto che l’IP (Internet Protocol) sarà il protocollo di riferimento per qualunque tipo di rete. L’adozione di questo protocollo da parte di numerosi operatori e utilizzatori per il trasporto video, voce, dati implica quasi obbligatoriamente che una rete convergente si basi anch’essa sull’IP. Anche il protocollo SIP ha un ruolo cardine in questa evoluzione e ampliamento dell’offerta dei servizi. La sua flessibilità permette, infatti, rimanendo in uno stesso contesto tecnologico, di fornire servizi con caratteristiche molto differenziate, e di integrare, in una esperienza cliente omogenea, diverse forme di comunicazione come la conversazione, la messaggistica, lo streaming di video. Questa dinamicità dell'industria mondiale delle telecomunicazioni, garantita dai numerosi exploit tecnologici e dalle nuove soluzioni proposte di continuo dai player, inducono gli analisti a mantenere alta l'attenzione sui driver che stanno trainando il mercato, e cioè la domanda costante di connettività a banda larga con elevata capacità e di servizi mobili sistematicamente più sofisticati e convergenti, con un rapporto qualità-prezzo sempre più competitivo.2 L’intero settore delle telecomunicazioni è attualmente caratterizzato da grandi innovazioni che ne stanno cambiando radicalmente i connotati. E’ normale che, in queste situazioni di forte transizione tecnologica, praticamente tutto venga sconvolto e messo in discussione. Il vecchio declina mentre il nuovo per consolidarsi richiede scelte difficili, investimenti, nuove dimensioni imprenditoriali e manageriali, e soprattutto tempo. Come già detto, la grande dinamicità e il ristagnare delle rendite legate ai tradizionali servizi di telefonia fanno da preludio ad un profondo mutamento: la rivoluzione della convergenza. La strategia che stanno perseguendo tutti gli operatori di mercato è quella che punta a realizzare un’infrastruttura unica di trasporto, basata su protocollo IP, lo stesso della rete internet, in grado di supportare servizi innovativi in banda larga sia per il fisso che per il mobile. “In un futuro ormai prossimo, diciamo cinque anni, ci sarà la convergenza su un'unica piattaforma delle tecnologie di comunicazione. L’utilizzo dei telefoni portatili cambierà: il cellulare, grazie alla 2 Insight Research, "The Future of Telecommunications 2006 – 2011”. Maggio 2006 2 Introduzione convergenza e alla possibilità di trasmettere e ricevere una grande quantità di dati, diventerà un apparecchio molto più simile ad un tradizionale PC. Ciò significa che sulla stessa rete potremo contemporaneamente comunicare a voce, navigare su Internet, vedere videoconferenza.”. televisione, E’ quanto fare videogiochi sottolinea da Roberto remoto, Guadagni, discutere in responsabile infrastrutture di rete e di calcolo dell'Enea (Ente per le nuove tecnologie, l’energia e l’ambiente).3 Tale infrastruttura rappresenta la base per lo sviluppo di una piattaforma comune attraverso la quale offrire gli stessi prodotti e servizi su qualunque terminale (PC, TV, Telefonino, ecc), mediante diverse tecnologie (ADSL, HSDPA, DVB-H, UMA, ecc) e consentendo al cliente di decidere dove, come, e quando accedere a tali servizi. In questo contesto, l’offerta di Mobile TV, la fruizione di contenuti televisivi su apparecchi mobili tramite l’utilizzo della tecnologia DVB-H (Digital Video Broadcasting - Handheld), appare ricca e ben distribuita. Grazie allo standard DVBH sarà possibile guardare la televisione sul cellulare in maniera interattiva e dunque rendere concreto il concetto di portabilità. Con lo sviluppo di offerte multimediali VoD (Video on Demand) e PVR (Personal Video Recorder), combinate con il lancio della Mobile TV, il mercato entrerà inoltre nell’era della Personal TV. La convergenza non rende più possibile la distinzione tra telefonia fissa e mobile. Proprio quest’ultima sta acquisendo ampiezze di banda che per molti servizi non farà rimpiangere la potenza delle reti fisse. E manterrà quel grande vantaggio che è la mobilità totale, requisito ormai indispensabile per gli utenti finali. Ma le reti fisse potranno riappropriarsi almeno di una parte del traffico che hanno perso con i nuovi sviluppi degli accessi WiFi e WiMax, che consentiranno di fare con il telefonino, da casa, dall’ufficio e forse dalla strada comunicazioni che di fatto transiteranno sulla rete fissa. 3 Conferenza "e-Infrastrutture per lo sviluppo", organizzata dal Consortium GARR, ideatore e gestore della rete telematica nazionale per l'Istruzione, l'Università e la Ricerca Scientifica. 3 Introduzione Ormai la marcia verso grandezze di banda sempre più importanti è inarrestabile. Si calcola che entro il 2015 il 20 per cento degli europei potrà contare su una banda di 100 mega, il che consentirà di fare assolutamente tutto».4 La banda larga, verso la quale si stanno rivolgendo con ingenti investimenti le principali compagnie che offrono servizi di telefonia fissa, non è un semplice passaggio dalla banda stretta della telefonia vocale a quella larga che ci consente già di vedere la televisione attraverso le reti di telecomunicazione. E’ una svolta progressiva che apre nuovi mondi di servizi, non solo di intrattenimento, ma soprattutto di utilità per la produttività delle imprese e per lo sviluppo di indispensabili servizi sociali. Molti servizi innovativi di comunicazioni mobili, in primis la navigazione su Internet, sono limitati o quasi impossibili per la carenza di banda, e lo stesso accade nelle comunicazioni fisse. Servono servizi innovativi per la sanità, per i trasporti, per la sicurezza, per l’insegnamento a distanza, per la formazione professionale, per la gestione aziendale per giustificare nuovi investimenti in banda larga, e la convinzione generale è che sarà la crescita della banda a stimolare la nascita dei servizi nuovi. Infine, la forte avanzata delle tecnologie ti telecomunicazioni introducono importanti fattori: la capacità dei sistemi basati su protocollo IP di combinare e trasportare ovunque voce, video e dati; la forte varietà di soluzioni wired e wireless proposte a livello locale; la continua richiesta di connettività e la conseguente guerra al ribasso delle tariffe; la crescente domanda di soluzioni per garantire la sicurezza informatica e, di pari passo, il compito sempre più arduo di proteggere con efficacia gli internauti dai mille pericoli della Rete. 4 Carlo Mario Guerci, Professore Ordinario di Economia Politica presso la Università degli Studi di Milano 4 Introduzione Il Progetto Wind – “Convergent Access Network” Questo lavoro è il risultato di un progetto commissionato dalla divisione reti di Wind Spa. Il progetto, della durata di sei mesi, prevedeva l’analisi del mercato delle telecomunicazioni, ed in particolare lo studio dei soggetti coinvolti e delle loro strategie di mercato. Sono state studiate le tecnologie e le innovazioni nel campo della comunicazione e della telefonia, sia fissa che mobile, con una focalizzazione sulle nuove potenzialità offerte. Sono stati proposti nuovi servizi convergenti che incontrassero queste nuove esigenze e le possibilità offerte dalle tecnologie innovative. Infine, è stato analizzato il mercato ed i suoi trend, e sono stati evidenziati i bisogni espressi dai consumatori e le loro nuove esigenze. Il lavoro è scritto in Inglese, su specifica richiesta del committente, che con la recente acquisizione da parte di Weather Investments ha assunto un carattere internazionale. L’attività è stata sottoposta a periodiche verifiche da parte del committente e del referente aziendale, Maria Rita Spada, mediante diversi incontri, con lo scopo di verificare lo stato di avanzamento dei lavori e di definire gli step successivi. Infatti, per poter raggiungere l’obiettivo del lavoro si è proceduto tramite diverse fasi, sintetizzate nella Figura 1. Figura 1: Fasi del Progetto "Convergent Access Network" 5 Introduzione Come si evince, il progetto ha una doppia valenza: una di carattere prettamente tecnologico e l’altra di carattere economico. Proprio questa interdisciplinità ha contribuito all’accrescimento delle mie competenze trasversali e all’approfondimento delle tematiche d’interesse di questa tesi. Il lavoro da me svolto nell’ambito di questo progetto è rivolto alla componente tecnologica che ha reso possibile la proposta di un servizio integrato basato su una nuova architettura convergente. Sviluppato nell’ambito del programma formativo Junior Consulting, presso il Consorzio ELIS (CONSEL) di Roma, il progetto ha visto lavorare, sotto il coordinamento del Team Leader Gennaro Galdo, quattro laureandi in diverse discipline: Grace Augustine, laureata in B.A. Organizational Studies presso l’università del Michigan (U.S.A.), Andrea Chiarello, laureando in Ingegneria Elettronica (indirizzo Microelettronica), presso l’università di Bari, e Tommaso Chiocchi, laureando in Ingegneria Gestionale, presso l’università Tor Vergata di Roma. Struttura della Tesi L’obiettivo di questa tesi è quello di individuare un possibile modello architetturale che favorisca soluzioni di convergenza fra varie tecnologie di accesso nomadiche, mobili e di broadcasting. Le tecnologie studiate per questo scopo sono: DVB-H, UMTS Release 6, Mobile WiMAX (802.16e), IMS, SIP e IPv6. Come prima fase è stato necessario uno studio approfondito sulle reti di accesso delle principali tecnologie (UMTS, WiMAX e DVB-H) che sono state scelte per l’integrazione [Capitolo 1]. In particolare, sono state analizzate le varie caratteristiche che contraddistinguono queste tre tecnologie standardizzate e le rendono le più efficienti nel loro specifico ambito d’interesse. Questo studio è stato fatto per poter capire fino a che punto potersi ‘spingere’ al fine di ottenere la convergenza verso un’unica rete di accesso. 6 Introduzione La seconda fase, infatti, ha come scopo l’individuazione proprio di un modello architetturale unico per una generica rete di accesso [Capitolo 2]. Per questo è stata necessaria dapprima un’analisi delle reti di accesso rivolta principalmente ad individuare dove e come queste tecnologie si agganciano al “mondo IP” e quali specifiche funzionalità ogni singolo dispositivo fisico svolge [§ 2.2 - 2.4]. A valle di questa analisi preliminare è stato possibile eseguire un paragone a livello funzionale tra i vari elementi che compongono le diverse reti di accesso per sottolineare cosa hanno in comune (funzioni parallele o simili) ed individuare le diversità e peculiarità di ogni tecnologia [§ 2.5]. Ne deriva un modello architetturale unico tra le varie tecnologie di accesso in cui vengono individuati dei blocchi funzionali. Ognuno di questi blocchi è composto da funzionalità, necessarie per la rete di accesso, che sono dislocate o accorpate nei dispositivi delle reti di accesso delle tre tecnologie prese in considerazione [§ 2.6]. Come passo successivo si è ritenuto opportuno approfondire l’analisi della piattaforma IMS (IP Multimedia Subsystem) [Capitolo 3], la piattaforma multimediale che permette proprio l’integrazione tra diversi servizi, basandosi sul protocollo SIP. La rete IMS è stata individuata, quindi, come Core Network all-IP based. Un ulteriore passo verso una totale convergenza ha reso necessario un approfondimento su come poter legare le reti di accesso alla Core Network unica IMS. Questo ha portato a dover tener conto di un insieme di elementi necessari per ottenere tale connessione. Il risultato di questo lavoro è la proposta di una Edge Network [Capitolo 4]. L’approccio utilizzato nella definizione di questa sezione di rete è stato quello di suddividere il lavoro in varie fasi. Come primo passo sono stati individuati i requisiti e le funzionalità che la Edge Network deve soddisfare [§ 4.2]. Sulla base di questo sono stati definiti gli elementi di cui la Edge Network è composta per le tre specifiche tecnologie di accesso, UMTS, WiMAX e DVB-H. Per ognuno di questi dispositivi è stata svolta un’analisi approfondita e soprattutto uno studio ed una definizione del loro stack protocollare [§ 4.3 - 4.5]. Successivamente si è presentato un modello di architettura convergente, composto da Access Network, Edge Network e Core Network, ed è chiaramente spiegato in che modo la Edge Network permette di ottenere tale architettura [§ 4.6]. Ovviamente, la proposta finale 7 Introduzione di questa tesi è il risultato di ampie valutazioni e considerazioni, per cui è necessaria anche una descrizione dell’evoluzione che la Edge Network, e di conseguenza l’architettura convergente, subisce a partire dall’esistenza di tre reti di accesso del tutto separate al raggiungimento di una rete completamente integrata, tenendo in considerazione anche possibili sviluppi futuri [§ 4.6.1]. Terminando, sono indicati i vantaggi che questa soluzione apporta e le sue caratteristiche [§ 4.6.2]. Infine, viene presentato come l’architettura convergente risultante può essere implementata [Appendice A]. Per poter fare ciò viene preso come esempio un case pilot di possibile servizio convergente, chiamato m-Advertising game [§ A.1]. È stato scelto questo tipo di servizio perché mette in evidenza il ruolo svolto da uno degli elementi della Edge Network, il Content Provider server, che è appunto un dispositivo cruciale nell’implementazione della Edge Network [§ A.2]. Questo componente della Edge Network ha il compito di connettere il sistema di trasmissione broadcast DVB-H alla Core Network IMS, quindi oltre le funzionalità che tale server già possiede deve essere in grado di svolgere funzioni aggiuntive. Una di queste è l’instaurazione di sessione, la quale è messa in evidenza nel caso preso in considerazione. Perciò, per simulare un ambiente IMS, in cui il Content Provider server si trova, ho usato un SIP proxy che gestisce la funzione di presence. Si mostra in questo modo come il Content Provider server può instaurare una sessione HTTP con gli utenti [§ A.3]. Uno studio preliminare del mercato delle Telecomunicazioni è stato necessario per poter capire verso cosa sono rivolte le continue evoluzioni nel mondo delle telecomunicazioni e quali sono le possibilità che le innovazioni tecnologiche offrono, quindi è presentato un overwiev sullo scenario internazionale ed italiano [Appendice B]. 8 Technical Overview CHAPTER ONE 1. TECHNICAL OVERVIEW The objective of this thesis is a convergent architecture between different access technologies. In order to achieve this convergence the access networks considered are UMTS (Release 6), Mobile WiMAX and DVB-H. These three technologies were chosen because of different reasons. First, they are standard solutions. Standardization is very important when interworking is necessary, especially in this case. ETSI (European Telecommunication Standards Institute) has chosen DVB-H as European standard for the broadcasting mobile TV. UMTS is standardized by 3GPP (3rd Generation Partnership Project) which is a co-operation between ETSI in Europe and other Associations worldwide. WiMAX standard is IEEE 802.16. This is the 16th working group of IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers) 802, which is specialized in wireless broadband access. The IEEE 802.16 standard specifics just the air interface (physical and MAC layer), the last 802.16e one allows this technology to be used by mobile and nomadic clients. Furthermore, they are the most common, especially in Europe where UMTS is already spread, DVB-H is now coming and WiMAX will soon be realized. Moreover there is a wide industry support for them. In addition, they cover the whole service spectrum: DVB-H is the one that provides the broadcasting transmission to mobile terminals, UMTS is the mobile telecommunication system and it also provides a wide range of services, at last WiMAX gives the broadband wireless connection, mobile, portable and fixed. A Convergent Access Network can be done with any kind of access technology but in this thesis DVB-H, UMTS and WiMAX are taken into account because they are the most efficient technologies in comparison with their competitors. For example, DVB-H provides a spectral efficiency higher then MediaFLO5. In Figure 1 the main property of each technology is summarized. DVB-H is based on the DVB-T transmission but it provides mobility with high data rate in addition, 5 MediaFLO is one of the main Broadcasting systems 9 Technical Overview thanks to its new features that allow battery saving, increased general robustness and support for seamless handover. It is also important to underline that DVB-H is IPBased. UMTS is very flexible, thanks to the CDMA6 it supplies a negotiable bit rate, delay and BER and it offers different QoS parameters. UMTS’s maximum achievable bit rate is 2 Mbps, very improved compared to other mobile systems like GSM/GPRS. WiMAX is the broadband wireless access technology that can accomplish very high data rates, up to 10 Mbps. It is able to allocate different QoS flow classes and it is very scalable. In this chapter these standardized technologies are introduced just to present them in general in order to understand what their features are. In the successive chapter, they are analyzed to see how convergence can be achieved. Figure 1: Technology Features 6 CDMA (Code Division Multiple Access) is a method of multiple access that does not divide up the channel by time (as in TDMA), or frequency (as in FDMA), but instead encodes data with a special code associated with each channel and uses the constructive interference properties of the special codes to perform the multiplexing. 10 Technical Overview 1.1 UMTS Release 6 (Universal Mobile Telecommunication System) 1.1.1 Introduction 3G Systems are intended to provide a global mobility with wide range of services including telephony, paging, messaging, Internet and broadband data. International Telecommunication Union (ITU) started the process of defining the standard for third generation systems, referred to as International Mobile Telecommunications 2000 (IMT-2000). In Europe European Telecommunications Standards Institute (ETSI) was responsible of UMTS standardization process. In 1998 Third Generation Partnership Project (3GPP) was formed to continue the technical specification work. The first UMTS Release is “R99” that was finalized in 2000, the subsequently Releases were numbered Rel4, Rel5 and Rel6. Release 99 defines the Core Network evolution starting from the GSM/GPRS system one, in the Release 4 control and transport planes are separated in the Core Network. Both Release 5 and 6 change the architecture by introducing the IP Multimedia Subsystem which provides all IPBased services, including voice. UMTS Release 6 takes a radical approach to the introduction of conversational and real time interactive multimedia services over an end-to-end IP transport provided by an enhanced general packet radio service in the packet switched domain. 1.1.2 UMTS Services and Features UMTS offers teleservices (like speech or SMS) and bearer services, which provide the capability for information transfer between access points. It is possible to negotiate and renegotiate the characteristics of a bearer service at session or connection establishment and during ongoing session or connection. Both connection-oriented and connectionless services are offered for Point-to-Point and Point-to-Multipoint communication. Bearer services have different QoS parameters for maximum transfer delay, delay variation and bit error rate. 11 Technical Overview The main UMTS feature that distinguishes UMTS from GSM/GPRS is the maximum achievable bit rate. Offered data rate targets depend on the coverage area and they are: • 144 kbits/s satellite and rural outdoor • 384 kbits/s urban outdoor • 2048 kbits/s indoor and low range outdoor UMTS network services have different QoS classes for four types of traffic: • Conversational class (voice, video telephony, video gaming) • Streaming class (multimedia, video on demand, webcast) • Interactive class (web browsing, network gaming, database access) • Background class (email, SMS, downloading) UMTS will also have a Virtual Home Environment (VHE). It is a concept for personal service environment portability across network boundaries and between terminals. Personal service environment means that users are consistently presented with the same personalized features, User Interface customization and services in whatever network or terminal, wherever the user may be located. UMTS also has improved network security and location based services. In order to provide such services UMTS has to be very flexible. UMTS Release 6 introduces new features and services thanks to the IMS Core Network. It is allowed network sharing (i.e. multiple radio access networks sharing common core network) and WLAN interworking (use WLAN as access network for IMS instead of PS domain). New services are: • MBMS (Multimedia Broadcast and Multicast Service): downstream broadcasting and multicast support enable resource and cost efficient data transfer to many users in parallel • Push Service: pushing of information from network to UE • IMS Group Management: supporting service for other services • IMS Presence Services: user can find out presence of others and is visibility is defined to others • IMS Messaging: Instant Messaging interworks with Presence Service 12 Technical Overview 1.1.3 UMTS Architecture A UMTS network consist of three interacting domain: • Core Network (CN) • UMTS Terrestrial Radio Access Network (UTRAN) • User Equipment (UE) The main function of the Core Network is to provide switching, routing and transit for user traffic. Core Network also contains the databases and network management functions. The basic Core Network architecture for UMTS is based on GSM network with GPRS. All equipment has to be modified for UMTS operation and services. The UTRAN provides the air interface access method for User Equipment. Base Station is referred as Node-B and control equipment for Node-B's is called Radio Network Controller (RNC). It is necessary for a network to know the approximate location in order to be able to page user equipment. Here is the list of system areas from largest to smallest: • UMTS systems (including satellite) • Public Land Mobile Network (PLMN) • MSC/VLR or SGSN • Location Area • Routing Area (PS domain) • UTRAN Registration Area (PS domain) • Cell • Sub cell In particular, the architecture of UMTS Release 6 includes the UMTS Terrestrial Access Network (UTRAN), the GPRS domain and the Internet protocol Multimedia Subsystem Core Network (IMS CN). This architecture is shown in Figure 2. 13 Technical Overview Figure 2: UMTS Release 6 Architecture 1.1.3.1 Core Network The Core Network in the earlier releases (Rel99 and Rel4) is divided in circuit switched and packet switched domains. Some of the circuit switched elements are Mobile services Switching Centre (MSC), Visitor location register (VLR) and Gateway MSC. Packet switched elements are Serving GPRS Support Node (SGSN) and Gateway GPRS Support Node (GGSN). Some network elements, like EIR, HLR, VLR and AUC are shared by both domains. The Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) is defined for UMTS core transmission. ATM Adaptation Layer type 2 (AAL2) handles circuit switched connection and packet connection protocol AAL5 is designed for data delivery. The architecture of the Core Network may change when new services and features are introduced. Number Portability DataBase (NPDB) will be used to enable user to change the network while keeping their old phone number. Gateway Location Register (GLR) may be used to optimize the subscriber handling between network boundaries. MSC, VLR and SGSN can merge to become a UMTS MSC. 1.1.3.1.1 CS Domain The CS domain refers to the set of all the CN entities offering "CS type of connection" for user traffic as well as all the entities supporting the related signaling. 14 Technical Overview A "CS type of connection" is a connection for which dedicated network resources are allocated at the connection establishment and released at the connection release. The entities specific to the CS domain are: MSC, GMSC, VLR. All the other CN entities not defined as PS domain specific entities are common to the CS and to the PS domains. 1.1.3.1.2 PS Domain The PS domain refers to the set of all the CN entities offering "PS type of connection" for user traffic as well as all the entities supporting the related signaling. A "PS type of connection" transports the user information using autonomous concatenation of bits called packets: each packet can be routed independently from the previous one. The entities specific to the PS domain are the GPRS specific entities, i.e. SGSN and GGSN. [§ 4.3] 1.1.3.1.3 IP Multimedia subsystem (IMS) The IM subsystem comprises all CN elements for provision of IP multimedia services comprising audio, video, text, chat, etc. and a combination of them delivered over the PS domain. The entities related to IMS are CSCF, MGCF, MRF, etc. [Chapter 3]. 1.1.3.2 UTRAN The Universal Terrestrial Radio Access Network does not change in the different releases. It is a set of RNS which are composed of RNC and Node B. Every element is linked to another by using an ATM transport protocol. 1.1.3.2.1 Radio Access Wideband CDMA7 technology was selected to for UTRAN air interface. UMTS WCDMA is a Direct Sequence CDMA system where user data is multiplied with pseudo-random bits derived from WCDMA Spreading codes. In UMTS, in addition to channelization, Codes are used for synchronization and scrambling. 7 W-CDMA is a wideband spread-spectrum 3G mobile telecommunication air interface that utilizes code division multiple access (or CDMA the general multiplexing scheme, not to be confused with CDMA the standard). 15 Technical Overview WCDMA has two basic modes of operation: Frequency Division Duplex (FDD) and Time Division Duplex (TDD). 1.1.3.2.2 WCDMA channels Due to the wide range of information that the UMTS is able to transport, the protocol architecture of the UTRA FDD is layered in many levels. Because of this, there are different channels corresponding the different layers of the protocol stack: • Physical channels • Transport channels • Logical channels Physical channels connect the UE and the Node B, logical and transport channels transfer information from the RNC to the UE and vice versa. UE Node B RNC Figure 3: Physical, Logical and Transport Channels In Figure 4 are shown the channels involved in the air interface. 16 Technical Overview Figure 4: Radio Interface Protocol Architecture 1.1.3.3 User Equipment The UMTS standard does not restrict the functionality of the User Equipment in any way. Terminals work as an air interface counter part for Node-B and have many different types of identities. Most of these UMTS identity types are taken directly from GSM specifications: • International Mobile Subscriber Identity (IMSI) • Temporary Mobile Subscriber Identity (TMSI) • Packet Temporary Mobile Subscriber Identity (P-TMSI) • Temporary Logical Link Identity (TLLI) • Mobile station ISDN (MSISDN) • International Mobile Station Equipment Identity (IMEI) • International Mobile Station Equipment Identity and Software Number (IMEISV) UMTS mobile station can operate in one of three modes of operation: • PS/CS mode of operation: The MS is attached to both the PS domain and CS domain, and the MS is capable of simultaneously operating PS services and CS services. 17 Technical Overview • PS mode of operation: The MS is attached to the PS domain only and may only operate services of the PS domain. However, this does not prevent CSlike services to be offered over the PS domain (like VoIP). • CS mode of operation: The MS is attached to the CS domain only and may only operate services of the CS domain. UMTS IC card has same physical characteristics as GSM SIM card. It has several functions: • Support of one User Service Identity Module (USIM) application (optionally more that one) • Support of one or more user profile on the USIM • Update USIM specific information over the air • Security functions • User authentication • Optional inclusion of payment methods • Optional secure downloading of new applications 1.1.4 General Protocol Architecture In Figure 5 a simplified UMTS Architecture with the external reference points and interfaces to the UTRAN is shown. Figure 5: UMTS Architecture Two interfaces are illustrated: Uu and Iu interfaces. 18 Technical Overview The protocols over these interfaces are divided into two structures: • User plane protocols: These are the protocols implementing the actual radio access bearer service, i.e. carrying user data through the access stratum. The radio access bearer service is offered from SAP (Service Access Point) to SAP by the Access Stratum. • Control plane protocols: These are the protocols for controlling the radio access bearers and the connection between the UE and the network from different aspects (including requesting the service, controlling different transmission resources, handover & streamlining etc.). Also a mechanism for transparent transfer of NAS messages is included. 1.2 Mobile WiMAX (Wireless Interoperability for Microwave Access) [802.16e] 1.2.1 Introduction In December 2005 the IEEE ratified the 802.16e amendment to the 802.16 standard with the target of providing mobility to WiMAX (Wireless Interoperability for Microwave Access) technology. WiMAX is a broadband wireless solution that will enable the convergence of mobile and fixed broadband network. In order to distinguish the new standard version from the old one, the IEEE 802.16-2004 is called as “Fixed WiMAX” and the IEEE 802.16e as “Mobile WiMAX”. The Mobile WiMAX Air Interface uses OFDMA (Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiple Access) to improve the efficiency in a NLOS (No Line Of Sight) multipath context. SOFDMA (Scalable OFDMA) is introduced to support scalable channel bandwidths from 1.25 to 20 MHz. The IEEE 802.16 standard addresses the air interface specification, to define end-to-end system solutions for a Mobile WiMAX network the WiMAX forum Network Working Group (NWG) is developing a higher-level networking specifications for Mobile WiMAX system solution. 19 Technical Overview Some of the characteristics provides by the Mobile WiMAX are: • High Data Rates: Mobile WiMAX in a 10 MHz channel will support peak downlink (DL) data rates up to 63 Mbps per sector and peak uplink (UL) data rates up to 28 Mbps per sector. This performance can be achieved thanks to: - MIMO antenna technology - Flexible sub-channelization schemes - Advanced Coding and Modulation • Quality of Service: IEEE 802.16 MAC architecture defining Service Flow, which can map to DiffServ code points or MPLS (Multiprotocol Label Switching) flow labels, enables end-to-end IP based QoS (Quality of service). • Scalability: Mobile WiMAX technology is thought to be scalable in order to work in different channelizations from 1.25 to 20 MHz so it is conformable to the different worldwide spectrum resource allocations and allows countries with different economies to realize the configuration shaped to their specific geographic needs such as providing affordable internet access in rural setting versus high capacity in metro and suburban areas. • Security: To provide security Mobile WiMAX to exploit: - EAP-based authentication - AES-CCM-based authenticated encryption - CMAC and HMAC based control message protection schemes Moreover it supports a diverse set of user credentials such as the following: - SIM/USIM cards - Smart Cards - Digital Certificates - Username/Password schemes • Mobility: To provide real-time communications, such as VoIP, Mobile WiMAX adopts optimized handover schemes (latencies less than 50 milliseconds). Security is maintained during handover thanks to flexible key management. 20 Technical Overview 1.2.2 Features 1.2.2.1 Physical Layer 1.2.2.1.1 OFDMA Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiple Access (OFDMA) is a multiple-access multiplexing scheme for OFDM systems. It works by assigning a subset of subcarriers to individual users. It provides multiplexing operation of data streams from multiple users onto the downlink sub-channels and uplink multiple accesses by means of uplink sub-channel. OFDMA features are summarized in the following: • OFDMA is the “multi-user” version of OFDM • Functions essentially as OFDM-FDMA • Each OFDMA user transmits symbols using subcarriers that remain orthogonal to those of other users • More than one subcarrier can be assigned to one user to support high rate applications • Allows simultaneous transmission from several users and so better spectral efficiency As the Figure 6 shows, the OFDMA symbol structure consists of three types of subcurriers: • Data sub-carriers for data transmission • Pilot sub-carriers for estimation and synchronization purposes • Null sub-carriers for no transmission, used for guard bands and DC carriers 21 Technical Overview Figure 6: OFDMA Sub-Carriers Structure A sub-channel is a subset of Active (data end pilot) sub-carriers. Sub-channelization is made both in DL and UL. The minimum frequency-time resource unit of subchannelization is one slot, which is equal to 48 data tones (sub-carriers). 1.2.2.1.2 Scalable OFDMA The key difference between the Fixed and Mobile WiMAX standards is the more efficient S-OFDMA modulation scheme. S-OFDMA (Scalable OFDM Access) can assign a subset of sub-carriers to individual users. By using different sub-carriers multiple people can connect at the same time on the same frequency without interference. The number of sub-carriers can adjust dynamically for different conditions. Unlike many other OFDM-based systems such as WLAN, the 802.16 standard supports variable bandwidth sizes, this wide range of bandwidths is thought to flexibly address the need for various spectrum allocation and usage model requirements. A scalable physical layer enables standard-based solutions to deliver optimum performance in channel bandwidths ranging from 1.25 MHz to 20 MHz with fixed sub-carrier spacing. The S-OFDMA’s architecture is based on a scalable sub-channelization structure with variable Fast Fourier Transform (FFT) sizes according to the channel bandwidth. The scalability is supported by adjusting the FFT size while fixing the sub-carrier frequency spacing at 10.94 kHz, this is made to meet the optimal operation point balancing protection against multipath and Doppler shift. Since the resource unit sub-carrier bandwidth and symbol duration is fixed, the impact to higher layers is minimal when scaling the bandwidth. The SOFDMA parameters are listed in Table 1. 22 Technical Overview Table 1: OFDMA Scalability Parameters 1.2.2.1.3 TDD Frame Structure The 802.16e PYH supports TDD, FDD, and Half-Duplex FDD operation but the initial release of Mobile certification profile will only include TDD. Some of the reasons for preferring TDD are the following: • It has a strong advantage in the case where the asymmetry of the uplink and downlink data is variable. As the amount of uplink data increases, more bandwidth can be allocated to that and as it shrinks it can be taken away so it enables adjustments of the downlink/uplink ratio while with FDD both downlink and uplink always have a fixed and generically equal DL and UL. • TDD assures channel reciprocity for better support of link adaptation, MIMO and other closed loop advanced antenna technologies. • Unlike FDD, which requires a pair of channels, TDD only requires a single channel for both downlink and uplink providing greater flexibility for adaptation to varied global spectrum allocations. • Transceiver designs for TDD implementations are less complex and therefore less expensive. The frames are divided into DL and UL sub-frames. To prevent DL and UL transmission collision the sub-frames are separated by Transmit/Receive and Receive/Transmit Gaps. The Figure 7 shows the OFDM frame structure for TDD implementation. 23 Technical Overview The fields are: • Preamble: The preamble, used for synchronization, is the first OFDM symbol of the frame. • Frame Control Head (FCH): The FCH follows the preamble. It provides the frame configuration information such as MAP message length and coding scheme and usable sub-channels. • DL-MAP and UL-MAP: The DL-MAP and UL-MAP provide sub-channel allocation and other control information for the DL and UL sub-frames respectively. • UL Ranging: The UL ranging sub-channel is allocated for mobile stations (MS) to perform closed-loop time, frequency, and power adjustment as well as bandwidth requests. • UL CQICH: The UL CQICH channel is allocated for the MS to feedback channel state information. • UL ACK: The UL ACK is allocated for the MS to feedback DL HARQ acknowledgement. Figure 7: OFDMA Frame Structure 24 Technical Overview 1.2.2.1.4 Other Advanced PHY Layer Features To best meet the coverage and capacity in mobile applications the 802.16e introduces the following features: • Adaptive modulation and coding (AMC): The core idea of AMC is to dynamically change the Modulation and Coding Scheme (MCS) in subsequent frames with the objective of adapting the overall spectral efficiency of the channel condition. The decision concerning selecting the appropriate MCS is performed at the receiver side according to the observed channel condition. Then the information is fed back to the transmitter in each frame. • Hybrid Automatic Request (HARQ): it is a variation of the ARQ error control method. When the coded data block is received, the receiver first decodes the error-correction code. If the channel quality is good enough, all transmission errors should be ok, and the receiver can obtain the correct data block. If the channel quality is bad and some transmission errors can not be corrected, the receiver will detect this situation using the error-correction code and then the received coded data block is discarded and a retransmission is requested by the receiver, similar to ARQ. • Fast Channel Feedback (CQICH). Table 2: Code and Modulation options As can be seen in Table 2, WiMAX supports different digital modulation schemes, in the DL QPSK, 16QAM and 64QAM are mandatory while in the UL 64QAM is optional. It can support Convolutional Code (CC) and Convolutional Turbo Code (CTC) with variable code rate and repetition coding. Optionally, it can support Block Turbo Code and Low Density Parity Check Code (LDPC). Combining the various modulation and code rates WiMAX can provide a variety of data rates that are adaptable to different needs. 25 Technical Overview 1.2.2.2 MAC Layer The WiMAX standard wants to reach the goal of providing a set of heterogeneous broadband services like voice, data and video. To achieve this target it may be able to supporting simultaneously on the same channel bursty data traffic with high peak rate demand, streaming video and latency sensitive voice traffic. A MAC scheduler has the capability of changing dynamically the throughput by varying the resources allocated to one terminal from a single time slot to an entire frame. The allocation information is transmitted by the MAP messages at the beginning of each frame. In this way, the scheduler can adapt the resource allocation frame-by-frame. 1.2.2.2.1 Quality of Service To provide the different types of services, Mobile WiMAX needs to support different QoS requirements. Some of the characteristics that enable it to achieve this peculiarity are: • Fast air link • Symmetric UL/DL capacity • Fine resource granularity • Flexible resource allocation mechanism To manage the QoS the Mobile WiMAX MAC layer uses a service flow that is a unidirectional flow of packets that contain the particular set of QoS parameters. First of all the base station and the user terminal establish a unidirectional logic link called a connection between the peer MACs. The outbound MAC then associates packets crossing the MAC interface into a service flow to be delivered over the connection. The QoS parameters associated with the service flow define the transmission ordering scheduling on the air interface. The service flow parameters can be dynamically managed through MAC messages to accommodate the dynamic service demand. The service flow-based QoS mechanism applies to both DL and UL and provides improved QoS in both directions. Mobile WiMAX supports a wide range of data services and applications with varied QoS requirements. These are summarized in Table 3. 26 Technical Overview Table 3: Quality of service options 1.2.2.2.2 MAC Scheduling Service The goal of scheduling and link adaptation is to provide the desired QoS treatment to the traffic traversing the airlink, while optimally utilizing the resources of the airlink. Some of the most important scheduler’s characteristics are the following: • It is located at each base station to enable rapid response to traffic requirements and channel condition. • It can correctly determine the packet’s transmission ordering, thanks to the data packets association of the service flow, with well defined QoS parameters in the MAC layer. • It can choose the appropriate coding and modulation for each allocation taking advantage of the CQICH channel fast feedback. The scheduling is provided for both DL and UL traffic. In order for the MAC scheduler to make an efficient resource allocation and provide the desired QoS in the UL, the UL must feedback accurate and timely information reaching the traffic condition and QoS requirements. The UL service flow defines the feedback mechanism for each uplink connection. The MAC scheduler manages the data 27 Technical Overview transport on a connection-by-connection basis. Each connection is associated with a single data service with a set of QoS parameters that quantify the aspects of its behavior. With the ability to dynamically allocate resources in both DL and UL, the scheduler can provide superior QoS for both DL and UL traffic. Particularly with uplink scheduling, the uplink resources are more efficiently allocated, performance is more predictable, and QoS is better enforced. 1.2.2.2.3 Mobility Management To enable power-efficient MS operation and save battery Mobile WiMAX works in two way of working: • Sleep Mode: When working in Sleep Mode state the MS conducts prenegotiated periods of absence from the Serving Base Station air interface. • Idle Mode: When working in Idle Mode state, the MS is periodically available for DL broadcast traffic messaging without registering at a specific base station. To manage the handoff Mobile WiMAX supports three different methods: • Hard Handoff (HHO): It is the only mandatory. With hard handoff, the link to the prior base station is terminated before or as the user is transferred to the new cell’s base station. That is to say that the mobile is linked to no more than one base station at a given time. Initiation of the handoff may begin when the signal strength received on the mobile from next base station is greater than that of the prior base station. • Fast Base Station Switching (FBSS): With FBSS the MS and the BS have a list called Active set in which they maintain the BSs involved in FBSS with the MS. The MS continuously monitors the BS in the Active Set among which defines the Anchor BS. MS only communicates with the Anchor BS for uplink and downlink messages including management and traffic connections. The Anchor BS switching is performed without of explicit HO signaling messages, only communicating the BS signal strength via the Channel Quality Indicator (CQI). A FBSS handover begins with a decision by the BS to receive or transmit data from the Anchor BS that may change 28 Technical Overview within the Active set. The MS scans the neighbor BSs and selects those that are suitable to be included in the active set. The MS reports the selected BSs and the active set update procedure is performed by the BS and MS. The MS continuously monitors the signal strength of the BSs that are in the active set and selects one BS from the set to be the Anchor BS. The MS reports the selected Anchor BS on CQICH or MS initiated HO request message. An important requirement of FBSS is that the data is simultaneously transmitted to all members of an active set of BSs that are able to serve the MS. • Macro Diversity Handover (MDHO): Also in this case the BS has a list called Active set in which they maintain the BSs involved in MDHO with the MS. The communications either in uplink or in downlink. A MDHO begins when a MS decides to transmit or receive unicast messages and traffic from multiple BSs at the same time. For downlink MDHO, two or more BSs provide synchronized transmission of MS downlink data such that diversity combining is performed at the MS. For uplink MDHO, the transmission from a MS is received by multiple BSs where selection diversity of the information received is performed. Selection diversity is the simplest diversity approach. Using multiple antennas with overlapping coverage, this approach selects the antenna with the highest received signal power, mitigating fading. The sleep Mode provides battery economizing and seamless handoff enables switching from one base station to another without interrupting the connection. In this way it tries to solve two of the most important barriers to the mobility. 1.2.2.2.4 Security Mobile WiMAX supports best in class security features by adopting the best technologies available today. Support exists for mutual device/user authentication, flexible key management protocol, strong traffic encryption, control and management plane message protection and security protocol optimization for fast handovers. The usage aspects of the security features are: • Key Management Protocol: Privacy and Key Management Protocol Version 2 (PKMv2) is the basis of Mobile WiMAX security as defined in 802.16e. This protocol manages the MAC security using PKM-REQ/RSP messages. PKM 29 Technical Overview EAP authentication, Traffic Encryption Control, Handover Key Exchange and Multicast/Broadcast security messages all are based on this protocol. • Device/User Authentication: Mobile WiMAX supports Device and User Authentication using IETF EAP protocol by providing support for credentials that are SIM-based, USIM-based or Digital Certificate or UserName/Password-based. Corresponding EAP-SIM, EAP-AKA, EAP-TLS or EAP-MSCHAPv2 authentication methods are supported through the EAP protocol. Key deriving methods are the only EAP methods supported. • Traffic Encryption: AES-CCM is the cipher used for protecting all the user data over the Mobile WiMAX MAC interface. The keys used for driving the cipher are generated from the EAP authentication. A Traffic Encryption State machine that has a periodic key (TEK) refresh mechanism enables sustained transition of keys to further improve protection. • Control Message Protection: Control data is protected using AES based CMAC, or MD5-based HMAC schemes. • Fast Handover Support: A 3-way Handshake scheme is supported by Mobile WiMAX to optimize the re-authentication mechanisms for supporting fast handovers. This mechanism is also useful to prevent any man-in-the-middleattacks. 1.2.2.3 Advanced Features of Mobile WiMAX 1.2.2.3.1 Smart Antenna Technologies Smart antenna technologies typically involve complex vector or matrix operations on signals due to multiple antennas. OFDMA allows smart antenna operations to be performed on vector-flat sub-carriers. Complex equalizers are not required to compensate for frequency selective fading. OFDMA therefore, is very well-suited to support smart antenna technologies. Mobile WiMAX supports a full range of smart antenna technologies to enhance system performance. The smart antenna technologies supported include: • Beamforming: With beamforming (a signal processing technique used with arrays of transmitters or receivers that controls the directionality of, or sensitivity to, a radiation pattern) the system uses multiple-antennas to 30 Technical Overview transmit weighted signals to improve coverage and capacity of the system and reduce outage probability. • Space-Time Code (STC): a method employed to improve the reliability of data transmission in wireless communication systems using multiple transmit antennas. STCs rely on transmitting multiple, redundant copies of a data stream to the receiver in the hope that at least some of them may survive the physical path between transmission and reception in a good enough state to allow reliable decoding. Transmit diversity such as Alamouti code is supported to provide spatial diversity and reduce fade margin. • Spatial Multiplexing (SM): Spatial multiplexing is supported to take advantage of higher peak rates and increased throughput. With spatial multiplexing, multiple streams are transmitted over multiple antennas. If the receiver also has multiple antennas, it can separate the different streams to achieve higher throughput compared to single antenna systems. In UL, each user has only one transmit antenna, two users can transmit collaboratively in the same slot as if two streams are spatially multiplexed from two antennas of the same user. This is called UL collaborative SM. The supported features in the Mobile WiMAX performance profile are listed in Table 4. Table 4: Smart Antenna Options Mobile WiMAX supports adaptive switching between these options to maximize the benefit of smart antenna technologies under different channel conditions. 1.2.2.3.2 Fractional Frequency Reuse Mobile WiMAX supports frequency reuse of one, i.e. all cells/sectors operate on the same frequency channel to maximize spectral efficiency. However, due to heavy 31 Technical Overview Cochannel Interference (CCI) in frequency reuse one deployment, users at the cell edge may suffer degradation in connection quality. With Mobile WiMAX, users operate on subchannels, which only occupy a small fraction of the whole channel bandwidth; the cell edge interference problem can be easily addressed by appropriately configuring subchannel usage without applying the traditional frequency planning. In Mobile WiMAX, the flexible sub-channel reuse is facilitated by sub-channel segmentation and permutation zone. A segment is a subdivision of the available OFDMA sub-channels (one segment may include all sub-channels). One segment is used for deploying a single instance of MAC. Permutation Zone is a number of contiguous OFDMA symbols in DL or UL that use the same permutation. The sub-channel reuse pattern can be configured so that users close to the base station operate on the zone with all sub-channels available. While for the edge users, each cell or sector operates on the zone with a fraction of all sub-channels available. In Figure 8, F1, F2, and F3 represent different sets of sub-channels in the same frequency channel. With this configuration, the full load frequency reuse one is maintained for center users to maximize spectral efficiency and fractional frequency reuse is implemented for edge users to assure edge-user connection quality and throughput. The sub-channel reuse planning can be dynamically optimized across sectors or cells based on network load and interference conditions on a frame by frame basis. All the cells and sectors therefore, can operate on the same frequency channel without the need for frequency planning. Figure 8: Fractional frequency Reuse 32 Technical Overview 1.2.2.3.3 Multicast and Broadcast Service (MBS) Multicast and Broadcast Service (MBS) supported by Mobile WiMAX combines the best features of DVB-H, MediaFLO and 3GPP E-UTRA and satisfies the following requirements: • High data rate and coverage using a Single Frequency Network (SFN) • Flexible allocation of radio resources • Low MS power consumption • Support of data-casting in addition to audio and video streams • Low channel switching time The Mobile WiMAX Release 1 profile defines a toolbox for initial MBS service delivery. The MBS service can be supported by either constructing a separate MBS zone in the DL frame along with unicast service (embedded MBS) or the whole frame can be dedicated to MBS (DL only) for standalone broadcast service. Figure 9 shows the DL/UL zone construction when a mix of unicast and broadcast service are supported. The MBS zone supports multi-BS MBS mode using Single Frequency Network (SFN) operation and flexible duration of MBS zones permits scalable assignment of radio resources to MBS traffic. It may be noted that multiple MBS zones are also feasible. There is one MBS zone MAP IE descriptor per MBS zone. The MS accesses the DL MAP to initially identify MBS zones and locations of the associated MBS MAPs in each zone. The MS can then subsequently read the MBS MAPs without reference to DL MAP unless synchronization to MBS MAP is lost. The MBS MAP IE specifies MBS zone PHY configuration and defines the location of each MBS zone via the OFDMA Symbol Offset parameter. The MBS MAP is located at the 1st sub-channel of the 1st OFDM symbol of the associated MBS zone. The multi-BS MBS does not require the MS be registered to any base station. MBS can be accessed when MS in Idle mode to allow low MS power consumption. The flexibility of Mobile WiMAX to support integrated MBS and unicast services enables a broader range of applications. 33 Technical Overview 1.2.3 End-to-End WiMAX Architecture The IEEE only defined the Physical (PHY) and Media Access Control (MAC) layers in 802.16. This approach has worked well for technologies such as Ethernet and WiFi, which rely on other bodies such as the IETF (Internet Engineering Task Force) to set the standards for higher layer protocols such as TCP/IP, SIP, VoIP and IPSec. In the mobile wireless world, standards bodies such as 3GPP and 3GPP2 set standards over a wide range of interfaces and protocols because they require not only airlink interoperability, but also inter-vendor inter-network interoperability for roaming, multi-vendor access networks, and inter-company billing. Vendors and operators have recognized this issue, and have formed additional working groups to develop standard network reference models for open inter-network interfaces. Two of these are the WiMAX Forum’s Network Working Group, which is focused on creating higher-level networking specifications for fixed, nomadic, portable and mobile WiMAX systems beyond what is defined in the IEEE 802.16 standard, and Service Provider Working Group which helps write requirements and prioritizes them to help drive the work of Network WG. Before delving into some of the details of the architecture, a few basic principles that have guided the WiMAX architecture development are first noted: 1. The architecture is based on a packet-switched framework, including native procedures based on the IEEE 802.16 standard and its amendments, appropriate IETF RFCs and Ethernet standards. 2. The architecture permits decoupling of access architecture (and supported topologies) from connectivity IP service. Network elements of the connectivity system are agnostic to the IEEE 802.16 radio specifics. 3. The architecture allows modularity and flexibility to accommodate a broad range of deployment options such as: • Small-scale to large-scale (sparse to dense radio coverage and capacity) WiMAX networks • Urban, suburban, and rural radio propagation environments • Licensed and/or licensed-exempt frequency bands • Hierarchical, flat, or mesh topologies, and their variants • Co-existence of fixed, nomadic, portable and mobile usage models. 34 Technical Overview WiMAX Forum industry participants have identified a WiMAX Network Reference Model (NRM) that is a logical representation of the network architecture. The NRM identifies functional entities and reference points over which interoperability is achieved between functional entities. The architecture has been developed with the objective of providing unified support of functionality needed in a range of network deployment models and usage scenarios (ranging from fixed – nomadic – portable – simple mobility – to fully mobile subscribers). Figure 10 illustrates the NRM, consisting of the following logical entities: MS, ASN, and CSN and clearly identified reference points for interconnection of the logical entities. The figure shows the key normative reference points R1-R5. The intent of the NRM is to allow multiple implementation options for a given functional entity, and yet achieve interoperability among different realizations of functional entities. Interoperability is based on the definition of communication protocols and data plane treatment between functional entities to achieve an overall end-to-end function, for example, security or mobility management. Thus, the functional entities on either side of a reference point represent a collection of control and bearer plane end-points. Figure 9: NRM Network Reference Model 35 Technical Overview The Network Access Provider (NAP) is a business entity that provides WiMAX radio access infrastructure to one or more WiMAX Network Service Providers (NSPs). A NAP implements this infrastructure using one or more Access Service Networks (ASN). The ASN defines a logical boundary and represents a convenient way to describe aggregation of functional entities and corresponding message flows associated with the access services. The ASN represents a boundary for functional interoperability with WiMAX clients, WiMAX connectivity service functions and aggregation of functions embodied by different vendors. Mapping of functional entities to logical entities within ASNs as described in the NRM may be performed in different ways. The Network Service Provider (NSP) is business entity that provides IP connectivity and WiMAX services to WiMAX subscribers consistent with the Service Level Agreement it establishes with WiMAX subscribers. To provide these services, an NSP establishes contractual agreements with one or more NAPs. An NSP may also establish roaming agreements with other NSPs and contractual agreements with third-part application providers (e.g. ASP or ISPs) for providing WiMAX services to subscribers. The ASP (Application Service Provider) provides value added services, Layer 3+ (e.g. IMS, corporate access, etc...) furthermore it provides and manages applications on top of IP. Connectivity Service Network (CSN) is defined as a set of network functions that provide IP connectivity services to the WiMAX subscriber(s). A CSN may comprise network elements such as routers, AAA proxy/servers, user databases and Interworking gateway devices. A CSN may be deployed as part of a Greenfield WiMAX Network Service Provider (NSP) or as part of an incumbent WiMAX NSP. The WiMAX Forum is in the process of network specifications in a manner that would allow a variety of vendor implementations that are interoperable and suited for a wide diversity of deployment requirements. 36 Technical Overview 1.3 DVB-H (Digital Video Broadcasting-Handheld) 1.3.1 Introduction DVB-H (Digital Video Broadcasting-Handheld) is a standard that allows broadcasting transmission in handheld devices. It is based on the DVB-T transmission system which has proven its ability to serve fixed, portable and mobile terminals, but handheld terminals (defined as light-weight, battery-powered apparatus) require specific features from the transmission system serving them. In effect, the transmission system shall offer the possibility to repeatedly turn the power off to some parts of the reception chain. This will reduce the average power consumption of the receiver. The transmission system shall also ensure it is easy for receivers to move from one transmission cell to another while maintaining the DVBH service. For a number of reception scenarios (indoor, outdoor, pedestrian and inside a moving vehicle), the transmission system shall offer sufficient flexibility and scalability to allow the reception of DVB-H services at various speeds, whilst optimizing transmitter coverage. Furthermore, as services are expected to be delivered in environments that suffer high levels of man-made noise, the transmission system shall offer the means to mitigate their effects on the performance of the receiving terminal. As DVB-H aims to provide a generic way to serve handheld terminals in various part of the world, the transmission system shall offer the flexibility to be used in various transmission bands and channel bandwidths. 1.3.2 Overview of the system A full DVB-H system is a combination of elements of the physical and link layer, as well as service information. DVB-H makes use of the following technological elements for the link and physical layers: • Link layer: - Time Slicing in order to reduce the average power consumption of the receiving terminal and enable smooth and seamless frequency handover. Time-slicing is mandatory for DVB-H. - Forward Error Correction for Multiprotocol Encapsulated Data (MPEFEC) for an improvement in C/N-performance (C/N: Carrier to Noise 37 Technical Overview ratio) and Doppler performance in mobile channels, also to improve the tolerance to impulse interference. MPE-FEC is not mandatory for DVB-H. • Physical layer: DVB-T with the following technical elements specifically targeting DVB-H use: - DVB-H signaling in the TPS-bits to enhance and speed up service discovery. Cell identifier is also carried on TPS-bits to support quicker signal scan and frequency handover on mobile receivers; - 4K-mode for trading off mobility and SFN cell size, allowing single antenna reception in medium SFNs at very high speed, adding thus flexibility in the network design; - In-depth symbol interleaver for the 2K and 4K-modes for further improving their robustness in mobile environment and impulse noise conditions. It should be emphasized that neither time slicing nor MPE-FEC technology elements, as they are implement in the link layer, touch the DVB-T physical layer in any way. This means that the existing receivers for the DVB-T are not disturbed by DVB-H signals (DVB-H is totally backward compatible to DVB-T). It is also important to notice that the payload of DVB-H is IP-datagrams or other network layer datagrams encapsulated into MPE-sections. In view of the restricted data rates suggested for individual DVB-H services and the small displays of typical handheld terminals, the classical audio and video coding schemes used in digital broadcasting do not suit DVB-H well. It is therefore suggested to exchange MPEG-2 video by H.264/AVC or other high-efficiency video coding standards. As said before, the physical layer has four extensions to the existing DVB-T physical layer. First, the bits in transmitter parameter signaling (TPS) have been upgraded to include two additional bits to indicate presence of DVB-H services and possible use of MPE-FEC to enhance and speed up the service discovery. Second, a new 4K mode orthogonal frequency division multiplexing (OFDM) mode is adopted for trading off mobility and single-frequency network (SFN) cell size, allowing singleantenna reception in medium SFNs at very high speeds. This gives additional 38 Technical Overview flexibility for the network design. 4K mode is an option for DVB-H complementing the 2K and 8K modes that are as well available. Also all the modulation formats, QPSK, 16QAM and 64QAM with nonhierarchical or hierarchical modes, are possible to use for DVB-H. Third, a new way of using the symbol interleaver of DVB-T has been defined. For 2K and 4K modes, the operator may select (instead of native interleaver that interleaves the bits over one OFDM symbol) the option of an in-depth interleaver that interleaves the bits over four or two OFDM symbols, respectively. This approach brings the basic tolerance to impulse noise of these modes up to the level attainable with the 8K mode and also improves the robustness in mobile environment. Finally, the fourth addition to DVB-T physical layer is the 5MHz channel bandwidth to be used in no-broadcast bands. This is of interest, e.g., in the United States, where a network at about 1.7 GHz is running using DVB-H with a 5-MHz channel. 1.3.3 Structure of a DVB-H receiver The conceptual structure of DVB-H user equipment is depicted in Figure 10. Figure 10: Conceptual Structure of DVB-H Receiver It includes a DVB-H receiver (which includes a DVB-T demodulator, a time-slicing module, and an optional MPE-FEC module) and a DVB-H terminal. The DVB-T demodulator recovers the MPEG-2 transport stream (TS) packets from the received DVB-T RF signal. It offers three transmission modes: 8K, 4K, and 2K with the corresponding signaling (Transmitter Parameter Signaling, TPS). 39 Technical Overview The time-slicing module controls the receiver to decode the wanted service and shut off during the other service bits. It aims to reduce receiver power consumption while also enabling a smooth and seamless frequency handover. The MPE-FEC module, provided by DVB-H, offers in addition to the error correction in the physical layer transmission, a complementary FEC function that allows the receiver to cope with particularly difficult reception situations. Let’s consider an example of using DVB-H for transmission of IP-services. In this example, given in Figure 11, both traditional MPEG-2 services and time-sliced “DVB-H services” are carried over the same multiplex. The handheld terminal decodes/uses IP-services only. It is important to note that 4K mode and the in-depth interleavers are not available, for compatibility reasons, in cases where the multiplex is shared between services intended for fixed DVB-T receivers and services for DVB-H devices. Figure 11: A conceptual description of using DVB-H system (sharing a MUX with MPEG-2 services) Some of the basic parameters of DVB-H physical layer are given in Tables 5 –7. Table 5 gives the frequency domain parameters for the 8-MHz channel. For other bandwidths, simple scaling offers the parameters where narrowing channel bandwidth means increased symbol length. Note that the number of active carriers is 40 Technical Overview smaller than directly proposed by the FFT size. As in DVB-T, this is due to having some guard band with zero amplitude carriers. Table 5: Frequency Domain Parameters for DVB-H OFDM Signal (8 MHz Channel) Table 6 gives the OFDM symbol lengths in time domain with and without guard intervals. It is worth noting that with the longest guard interval and using 4K mode one can build SFN networks using up to about 33–35-km transmitter distances. The maximum distance is dictated by the transmission delay between the transmitter sites. This should be smaller than the guard interval length. Table 6: Time Domain Parameters for DVB-H OFDM Signal (8 MHz Channel) Table 7 gives some examples of the achievable multiplex capacities with various modulation schemes and convolutional coding rates. The given numbers assume that MPE-FEC has been used with code rate 3/4. It should be noted that the DVB-H standard allows use of various code rates for MPE-FEC or even having no MPE-FEC at all. Again the figures can be scaled directly to other code rates and/or channel bandwidths where needed. For practical purposes, in networks aiming to serve 41 Technical Overview mobile handheld terminals, mainly the strongest code rates (i.e., 1/2 or 2/3) for convolutional coding lead to networks with good coverage and total performance. Table 7: Useful Net Bitrates (Mb/s) for Nonhierarchical Systems in 8-MHz Channel With MPEFEC Code Rate 3/4; Full Multiplex Assumed to be DVB-H 1.3.4 Standards and Protocol Stack In the DVB-H transmission are involved some standards: DVB, MPEG-2 and DSMCC. The DVB-H system specification represents the central document, referencing all other necessary standards. The physical layer specification has been incorporated in the DVB-T standard. Time slicing and MPE-FEC have been described in a new chapter of the DVB Data Broadcast specification. This document also defines the Multi-Protocol Encapsulation (MPE). DVB-H-specific signaling has been integrated into the DVB Service Information (SI) specification. The system specification determines mandatory and optional elements. As said before, time slicing is mandatory for all DVB-H services and therefore has become a characteristic feature of them. The system specification is complemented by DVB-H Implementation Guidelines which contain hints for the use and practical implementation of the standard. 42 Technical Overview Figure 12: The DVB-H standards family In general, the data broadcasting is considered an extension of a DVB transmission standards based on MPEG-2. These standards define techniques for delivering MPEG-2 Transport Stream (TS) which typically contains audio and video streams, through a variety of transmission media. As shown in Figure 13, data are transported within the MPEG-2 TS by application areas. Each application area has different features about filtering, overhead, size, and so on. The application areas are: • Data Piping: end-to-end asynchronous data transmission mechanism through a DVB compliant network. This specification shows how to put data into MPEG-2 TS packets. • Data Streaming: it supports the transmission of services which need an endto-end streaming-oriented delivery, using an asynchronous, synchronous or synchronized mode through a DVB compliant network. Data transmitted in this way are transported within PES (Program Elementary Stream) packets defined in MPEG-2. • MPE (Multi-Protocol Encapsulation): it supports sending services which need communication protocol datagrams transmission through a DVB 43 Technical Overview network. Datagram transmission based on the MPE specifications is realized by encapsulating datagrams into DSM-CC sections. DSM-CC sections are structures of data suitable for private sections defined by MPEG-2. This specification both contains also signaling mechanism for IP/MAC services inside the DVB networks and allows to implement DVB receiver which are automatically tuned when they access to IP/MAC flows on one or more TS. • Data Carousel: it allows to transmit services which need a periodic transmission of modules through DVB networks. These modules have a fixed size and can be updated, added or deleted inside the data carousel. They can be also grouped if this is required by the service. Data sent according to this specification are transmitted within DSM-CC data carousel. • Object Carousel: this specification was added in order to support the transmission of services which need a periodic sending of User-to-User DSM-CC through DVB networks. Data sent according to this specification are transmitted within both DSM-CC object carousel and DSM-CC data carousel defined by the MPEG-2 DSM-CC standard. 44 Technical Overview Figure 13: Standards in the Protocol Stack of the Broadcast Channel Each application area is defined by the following two parts: • Transport: it indicates how data are encapsulated in the suitable structures • Control: it specifies the information that allows receiver to automatically synthesize the services selected by user. It also indicates how data can be extracted from TS and how they can be built again. Both information will be a part of one bit flow (TS). The transmission of datagrams IP through DVB network is based on the protocol stack ISO/OSI compliant shown in Figure 14. 45 Technical Overview Figure 14: Protocol Stack, OSI Layer 1 to 3 1.3.5 Data Link Layer The standard DVB way of carrying IP datagrams in an MPEG-2 TS is to use MultiProtocol Encapsulation (MPE). With MPE each IP datagram is encapsulated into one MPE section. A stream of MPE sections are then put into an elementary stream (ES), i.e., a stream of MPEG-2 TS packets with a particular program identifier (PID). Each MPE section has a 12-B header, a 4-B cyclic redundancy check (CRC-32) tail and a payload length, which is identical to the length of the IP datagram, which is carried by the MPE section. A typical situation for future handheld DVB-H devices may be to receive audio/video services transmitted over IP on ESs having a fairly low bitrate, probably in the order of 250 kb/s. The MPEG-2 TS may, however, have a bitrate of e.g., 10 Mb/s. The particular ES of interest thus occupies only a fraction (in this example, 2.5%) of the total MPEG-2 TS bitrate. In order to drastically reduce power consumption, one would ideally like the receiver to demodulate and decode only the 2.5% portion of interest, and not the full MPEG-2 TS. With time slicing this is possible, since the MPE sections of a particular ES are sent in high bitrate bursts instead of with a constant low bitrate. During the time between the bursts (the offtime) no sections of the particular ES are transmitted and this allows the receiver to power off completely during off-times. This feature is necessary in handheld mobile user terminals. 46 Technical Overview 1.3.5.1 Time-Slicing The objective of time-slicing is to reduce the average power consumption of the terminal and enable smooth and seamless service handover. Time-slicing consists of sending data in bursts using significantly higher instantaneous bit rate compared to the bit rate required if the data were transmitted using traditional streaming mechanisms. To indicate to the receiver when to expect the next burst, the time (delta-t) to the beginning of the next burst is indicated within the burst. Between the bursts, data of the elementary stream is not transmitted, allowing other elementary streams to use the bandwidth otherwise allocated. Time-slicing enables a receiver to stay active only a fraction of the time, while receiving bursts of a requested service. It is important to note that the transmitter is constantly on (i.e. the transmission of the transport stream is not interrupted). Figure 15: Principle of Time-Slicing In Figure 15 is illustrated how the Time-Slicing works. The peak bit rate of the bursts may potentially be the full MPEG-2 TS bit rate, but could also be any lower peak value allocated for the ES. If the value is lower than the peak bitrate, the MPEG-2 TS packets of a particular burst may be interleaved with MPEG-2 TS packets belonging to other ESs (DVB-H or other, e.g., SI or MPEG-2 audio/video). Thanks to the flexible delta_t signaling there are no requirements to have fixed burst sizes or fixed time between bursts. A variable-bit-rate coded video stream could 47 Technical Overview therefore use a variable burst size and/or a variable time between bursts. It should be noted that one burst could contain several services, which would then share PID but could e.g., be discriminated by different IP addresses. If the average bitrate of the ES is 500 kb/s, the peak bitrate is 10 Mb/s and the burst size is 2 Mb (maximum allowed value), the burst time becomes 200 ms, and the burst cycle time 4 s. The receiver, however, has to wake up a little bit before the burst to synchronize and be prepared to receive the sections. Assuming a figure of 200 ms for the total preparation time, including some margin for delta_t jitter, the power saving in the example becomes 90%. It is probable that the actual parameters used for Time Slicing will be a compromise between power consumption and other factors, such as service access time and RF performance. Time-slicing also supports the possibility to use the receiver to monitor neighbouring cells during the off-times (between bursts). By accomplishing the switching of the reception from one transport stream to another during an off period it is possible to accomplish a quasi-optimum handover decision as well as seamless service handover. Time-slicing is always used in DVB-H. 1.3.5.1.1 Handover Considerations DVB-H supports very efficient handover behavior including seamless handover. This is due to the existence of the off periods in time slicing, where the receiver may scan other frequencies in order to find the best potential alternative frequency, or actually execute the handover. It should be emphasized that the possibility of “silently” evaluating alternative frequencies, without disturbing the ongoing reception of the service, is a very important feature of the DVB-H system. If the same TS is available in a number of adjacent cells, the transmission of the TS should preferably be time synchronized. This is in principle straightforward to achieve, since the same methods could be used as in SFNs and the required time accuracy is much less strict than in the SFN case. If the transmissions of the TS on different frequencies are time synchronized, a receiver will receive the next burst at the time indicated by delta_t also on any new frequency carrying this TS. Since the 48 Technical Overview TS is the same also, the content of the bursts are the same, which means that the handover will naturally be seamless. 1.3.5.2 MPE-FEC The objective of the MPE-FEC is to improve the C/N- and Doppler performance in mobile channels and to improve the tolerance to impulse interference. This is accomplished through the introduction of an additional level of error correction at the MPE layer. By adding parity information calculated from the datagrams and sending this parity data in separate MPE-FEC sections, error-free datagrams can be output after MPE-FEC decoding despite a very bad reception condition. The use of MPEFEC is optional. With MPE-FEC a flexible amount of the transmission capacity is allocated to parity overhead. The IP datagrams of each time sliced burst are protected by Reed– Solomon parity data (RS data), calculated from the IP datagrams of the burst. The RS data are encapsulated into MPE-FEC sections, which are also part of the burst and are sent immediately after the last MPE section of the burst, in the same ES, but with different table_id than the MPE sections, which enables the receiver to discriminate between the two types of sections in the ES. For the calculation of the RS data an MPE-FEC frame is used. The MPE-FEC frame consists of an application data table (ADT), which hosts the IP datagrams (and possible padding), and an RS data table, which hosts the RS data. This is shown in Figure 16. Figure 16: MPE-FEC Frame 49 Technical Overview For a given set of transmission parameters providing 25 % of parity overhead, the MPE-FEC may require about the same C/N as a receiver with antenna diversity. The MPE-FEC overhead can be fully compensated by choosing a slightly weaker transmission code rate, while still providing far better performance than DVB-T (without MPE-FEC) for the same throughput. This MPE-FEC scheme should allow high-speed single antenna DVB-T reception using 8K/16-QAM or even 8K/64-QAM signals. In addition MPE-FEC provides good immunity to impulse interference. The MPE-FEC, as standardized, works in such a way that MPE-FEC ignorant (but MPE capable) receivers will be able to receive the data stream in a fully backwardscompatible way, provided it does not reject the used stream_type. 1.3.6 Physical Layer: 1.3.6.1 4K Mode and In-depth Interleavers The objective of the 4K mode is to improve network planning flexibility by trading off mobility and SFN size. To further improve robustness of the DVB-T 2K and 4K modes in a mobile environment and impulse noise reception conditions, an in-depth symbol interleaver is also standardized. The additional 4K transmission mode is a scaled set of the parameters defined for the 2K and 8K transmission modes. It aims to offer an additional trade-off between Single Frequency Network (SFN) cell size and mobile reception performance, providing an additional degree of flexibility for network planning. Terms of the trade-off can be expressed as follows: • The DVB-T 8K mode can be used both for single transmitter operation and for small, medium and large SFNs. It provides a Doppler tolerance allowing high speed reception. • The DVB-T 4K mode can be used both for single transmitter operation and for small and medium SFNs. It provides a Doppler tolerance allowing very high speed reception. • The DVB-T 2K mode is suitable for single transmitter operation and for small SFNs with limited transmitter distances. It provides a Doppler tolerance allowing extremely high speed reception. 50 Technical Overview For 2K and 4K modes the in-depth interleavers increase the flexibility of the symbol interleaving, by decoupling the choice of the inner interleaver from the transmission mode used. This flexibility allows a 2K or 4K signal to take benefit of the memory of the 8K symbol interleaver to effectively quadruple (for 2K) or double (for 4K) the symbol interleaver depth to improve reception in fading channels. This provides also an extra level of protection against short noise impulses caused by, e.g. ignition interference and interference from various electrical appliances. 4K and in-depth interleavers affect the physical layer, however their implementations do not imply large increase in equipment (i.e. logic gates and memory) over the version 1.4.1 of DVB-T standard for either transmitters or receivers. A typical mobile demodulator already incorporates enough RAM and logic for the management of 8K signals, which exceed that required for 4K operation. The emitted spectrum of the 4K mode is similar to the 2K and 8K modes thus no changes in transmitter filters are envisaged. 1.3.6.2 DVB-H Signaling: TPS-bit Signaling The objective of DVB-H signaling is to provide a robust and easy-to-access signaling to the DVB-H receivers, thus enhancing and speeding up service discovery. So, TPSbit signaling provides robust multiplex level signaling capability to the DVB-T transmission system. TCP is a very robust signaling channel allowing TCP-lock in a demodulator with very low C/N-values. TPS provides also a faster way to access signaling than demodulating and decoding the Service Information (SI) or the MPE-section header. The DVB-H system uses two TPS bits to indicate the presence of time-slicing and optional MPE-FEC. Besides these, the signaling of the 4K mode and the use of indepth symbol interleavers are also standardized. 1.3.7 DVB-H Networks 1.3.7.1 The IP-DataCasting System A typical application for DVB-H is IP Datacasting service to handheld terminals like mobile phones. Figure 17 shows a full IP-DC system with the various components and elements included. 51 Technical Overview First the service system is used to produce the various IP streams (like video streams) to the network. They are then distributed over the multicast intranet to the IP Encapsulators, which will output the DVB-H TS with time slicing and MPE-FEC included. This TS is then distributed to the DVB-T/H transmitters of the broadcasting network. The IP Datacast (IP-DC) system may include other functions via cellular networks like General Packet Radio Service (GPRS) or Universal Mobile Telecommunications System (UMTS). Figure 17: A Typical IP-DC System 1.3.7.2 Broadcasting Spectrum DVB-H is intended to use the same broadcasting spectrum, which DVB-T is currently using. The physical layer of DVB-H is in fact DVB-T and therefore there is a full spectrum compatibility with other DVB-T services. DVB-H can be introduced either in a dedicated DVB-H network or by sharing an existing DVB-T multiplex between DVB-H and DVB-T services. When the final selection of the DVB-H concept was made, the capability to share a multiplex with DVB-T was indeed one of the decisive factors, as it was seen that this would enhance the commercial introduction possibilities of the service in the crowded UHF broadcasting spectrum. Technically almost any DVB-T frequency allotment or assignment can be used also for DVB-H; the only limitations come from 52 Technical Overview interoperability with GSM900 cellular transmitter in the DVB-H terminal. If simultaneous operation is required, the frequencies below about 700–750 MHz are favored. For broadcasters DVB-H can be seen just as a new means to provide broadcast services for a new, interesting group of customers, namely, the mobile phone users. If this is seen as interesting enough, spectrum will be available. It is in any case expected that the situation will be more relaxed after the analog TV services will start to close. It should also be noted that DVB-H is very spectrum efficient when compared with the traditional TV-services. One 8-MHz channel can deliver 30–50 video streaming services to the small screen terminals. This is ten times more than standard-definition TV (SDTV) with MPEG-2 or 20 times more than high-definition TV (HDTV) with AVC. 1.3.7.3 DVB-H Network Architectures As said in the previous paragraph, there three possible architectures for a DVB-H network: • DVB-H Standalone • Shared network DVB-H/T by multiplexing • Shared network DVB-H/T by hierarchical modulation 1.3.7.3.1 DVB-H Standalone (Dedicated DVB-H Networks) When a full multiplex can be reserved for DVB-H, the freedom in planning is increased. If needed, now it is possible to select the new 4k mode or in-depth interleavers introduced in the latest DVB-T standard for DVB-H. A dedicated DVBH network is shown in Figure 18. 53 Technical Overview Figure 18: A DVB-H Standalone Network A typical network is composed of several SFN areas, each using its own frequency allotment. The maximum size of one SFN area depends on the FFT size, guard interval, and geographical properties in the network, but can typically be in the order of tens of kilometers. Each SFN area has probably several GPS-synchronized transmitters supported by a number of on-channel repeaters to cover some smaller holes. As the required field strength in a DVB-H network is fairly high and the allowed total interfering power from an allotment is limited by the coordinated plan, the number of synchronized main transmitters should be higher and the transmitter powers and antenna heights lower than in a traditional DVB-T network. The network can be called dense SFN. Obviously the cost of the network is higher than in conventional DVB-T network, but also the number of services in one multiplex is ten times higher. 1.3.7.3.2 Sharing with DVB-T Shared Network DVB-H/T by Multiplexing: In this scenario the DVB-H IP services are inserted to the transport stream at the multiplexer level in parallel with the MPEG-2 services. Remultiplexing issues fall into two main themes: • Jitter: how does jitter in the MUX and modulator chain affect time-slicing? 54 Technical Overview • PSI/SI management (ID harmonization requirements; private descriptors) According to a survey that was done in 2nd quarter 2003 in order to evaluate these two themes, the existing multiplexers of most vendors can be used for multiplexing both DVB-H services and MPEG-2 services. Should first deployments within pilot networks show any problems, these can be expected to be minor. Figure 19: DVB-H Introduction example in existing DVB-T Networks with Multiplexing The following two minor issues can make existing multiplexers more suitable for DVB-H: • Smooth reinsertion of managed PSI/SI sections • Support for ID management in INT table By smoothing the reinsertion of PSI/SI sections, a stable amount of bitrate will be used for PSI/SI, leading to even less jitter on elementary streams carrying timesliced IP services. Multiplexers usually manage the IDs contained in the PSI/SI tables (PAT, PMT, NIT, SDT, etc.). The goal is to re-allocate PIDs, service IDs, transport stream IDs etc in order to resolve collisions between incoming transport streams. The INT table is currently a private section and does not participate in this ID management. Therefore, if the multiplexer changes e.g. the service ID of an incoming service that 55 Technical Overview carries encapsulated IP streams, the INT table that contains the IP-to-ES mappings for this service is destroyed. The DVB-T network already being in place, the time to market depends only on the availability of a timeslice-capable IP encapsulator and of timeslice-capable receivers. Shared Network DVB-H/T by Hierarchical Modulation: In this scenario the DVB-H IP services are inserted in the High Priority stream of the DVB-T modulator. The modulators are the existing 2K or 8K ones. A new TS distribution network for the IP stream is needed as well as the IP-encapsulator with DVB-H capability. Figure 20: DVB-H Introduction example in existing DVB-T Network with Hierarchical Modulation There are several advantages of using hierarchical modulation instead of multiplexing: • There can be separate sets (though mutually dependent) of modulation parameters for fixed (DVB-T) and mobile (DVB-H) reception, leading to more optimal bandwidth usage 56 Technical Overview • No multiplexer being involved, the jitter and ID management concerns that apply to the multiplexing scenario do not apply to the hierarchical modulation scenario The disadvantage is that a fixed amount of bandwidth has to be used for DVB-H, so there is no flexibility in there. The time to market depends only on the availability of a timeslice-capable IP encapsulator and of timeslice-capable receivers, and on the deployment of modulators and SFN-areas that support hierarchical mode. 57 Access Network Analysis CHAPTER TWO 2. ACCESS NETWORK ANALYSIS AND COMPARISON FOR UMTS, WiMAX AND DVB-H 2.1 Introduction UMTS, WiMAX and DVB-H technologies are now introduced and it is clear why they are chosen as access solutions thanks to their features. In this chapter their Access Networks are analyzed in order to comprehend how far the convergence can advance. This study is done assuming that an all-IP backbone is the basis of a reachable convergence between different Access Networks. In the following paragraphs the main functionalities of the different elements constituting the three Access Networks are described to be able to create a unique network model. According to this scope, all the devices composing the different Access Network are compared on a functional level. This comparison is needed to individuate which functions and features they perform in common and to highlight their own peculiarities and specializations. Resuming, the method used to achieve a convergence is composed of three phases: 1. Analysis: it is needed to understand which specific functions every physical element of each access network performs 2. Comparison: it is a functional comparison between different access networks’ devices looking for common functionalities based on the previous analysis 3. Unique Architectural Block Model: it is just a logical access network model because a physical convergence is unreachable, according to what comes from the analysis and comparison. 58 Access Network Analysis 2.2 Access Networks Analysis: UMTS UTRAN The Access Network in the UMTS system is the UTRAN (UMTS Terrestrial Radio Access Network). The UTRAN consists of a set of Radio Network Subsystems connected to the Core Network through the Iu. A RNS consists of a Radio Network Controller one or more Node Bs and optionally one SAS. It can be either full UTRAN or only a part of a UTRAN. The RNS offers the allocation and release of specific radio resources to establish means of connection in between an UE and the UTRAN, it is also responsible for the resources and transmission/reception in a set of cells. A Node B is a logical node in the RNS responsible for radio transmission/reception in one or more cells to/from the UE. It is connected to the RNC through the Iub interface. A Node B can support FDD mode, TDD mode or dual-mode operation. There are two chip-rate options in the TDD mode: • 3.84 Mcps TDD • 1.28 Mcps TDD Each TDD cell supports either of these options. A Node B which supports TDD cells can support one chip-rate option only, or both options. Alike, a RNC which supports TDD cells can support one chip-rate option only, or both options. A RNC is a logical node in the RNS in charge of controlling the use and the integrity of the radio resources. It is responsible for the Handover decisions that require signaling to the UE. A RNC may include a combining/splitting function to support combination/splitting of information streams. Inside the UTRAN, the RNCs of the Radio Network Subsystems can be interconnected together through the Iur. Iu(s) and Iur are logical interfaces. Iur can be conveyed over direct physical connection between RNCs or virtual networks using any suitable transport network. The UTRAN architecture is shown in Figure 21. 59 Access Network Analysis Figure 21: UTRAN Architecture As said before, the RNS is responsible for the resources of its set of cells. For each connection between User Equipment and the UTRAN, One RNS is the Serving RNS. The Serving RNS is in charge of the radio connection between a UE and the UTRAN. When required, Drift RNSs support the Serving RNS by providing radio resources. The role of an RNS (Serving or Drift) is on a per connection basis between a UE and the UTRAN. To support UE mobility between UTRAN and GERAN Iu mode, the Serving RNS may be connected to the DBSS and vice versa. The role of an RNS or BSS (Serving or Drift) is on a per connection basis between an UE and the UTRAN/GERAN Iu mode. The UTRAN is layered into a Radio Network Layer and a Transport Network Layer. The UTRAN architecture, i.e. the UTRAN logical nodes and interfaces between them, are defined as part of the Radio Network Layer. For each UTRAN interface (Iu, Iur, Iub, Iupc) the related transport network layer protocol and functionality is specified. The transport network layer provides services for user plane transport, signaling transport and transport of implementation specific O&M. An implementation of equipment compliant with the specifications of a certain interface shall support the Radio Network Layer protocols specified for that interface. It shall also as a minimum, for interoperability, support the transport network layer protocols 60 Access Network Analysis according to the transport network layer specifications for that interface. The network architecture of the transport network layer is not specified by 3GPP and is left as an operator issue. The equipment compliant to 3GPP standards shall at least be able to act as endpoints in the transport network layer, and may also act as a switch/router within the transport network layer. For implementation specific O&M signaling to the Node B, only the transport network layer protocols are in the scope of UTRAN specifications. In summary, UTRAN is composed of three entities: 1. Node B 2. RNC 3. RNS 2.2.1 Node B functionality The Node B is responsible for Spreading and Modulation, that is: • code generation • supports FDD, TDD or both, and CDMA It terminates physical channels and transport channels, while logical channels terminate at RNC. The Node B supports Fast Power Control with an “inner loop”, in effect it measures strength of received signals and informs UE if it needs to adjust. Moreover, it measures connection quality and strength. 2.2.2 RNC functionality The RNC, Radio Resource Management, guarantees stability and QoS of radio connection by means of a radio bearer. It supports Power Control with an “outer loop”. The RNC performs the Handover Control, in particular it decides if should there be a handover, based on measurements of UE and Node B. 61 Access Network Analysis Other functionalities are Admission Control and Packet Scheduling, it decides if a new session can be established on the UTRAN without compromising the quality of existing sessions: • Plan channel use, calculate interference and utilization levels • Configure radio resources accordingly The RNC is responsible for Code Management and Macrodiversity Management. In UMTS one UE can communicate via up to 6 antennas simultaneously, this is Macrodiversity. The RNC can also provide the UTRAN Control function: • Setup, maintenance, and release of a radio connection (radio bearer) • System information broadcasting (e.g., radio measurement criteria, etc.) • Initial access and signaling connection setup and management (synchronization, broadcast of initial scrambling code, etc.) • UTRAN security functions: it protects user and control data by encryption and integrity protection • UTRAN level mobility management, informing new cell (Node B) and UE about handover, new channel, etc. and serving RNS relocation • Database handling: it stores cell information and sends it to corresponding Node Bs and Ues, that is cell identity, power levels, connections quality, neighboring cells information (needed for handover) • UE positioning: it selects and controls UE positioning method, using cell ID, RTT, etc. For each UE, one RNC is responsible and it is called SRNC, Serving RNC: typically this is the RNC controlling the cell in which the UE is located. If UE moves to a cell controlled by a different RNC this becomes the Drift RNC, DRNC and the control stays with SRNC. Also macrodiversity may introduce DRNCs. 62 Access Network Analysis Figure 22: Serving RNC and Drift RNC 2.2.3 UTRAN Functions The main element in the access network is the RNC, its function is to manage all the functionalities in the radio interface (user side) and to allow the service transport in a transparent mode to the Core Network. So, the user mobility, the handover function and the macro diversity are completely controlled by the UTRAN. The Core Network is completely separated from the service transport functions, while control and signaling functions end in the RNC. RNC converts them into the radio protocol format necessary for the user. The main functions performed by the UTRAN are the following: • Transfer of User Data: This function provides user data transfer capability across the UTRAN between the Iu and Uu interfaces points. • Functions related to Overall System Access Control: System access is the means by which a UMTS user is connected to the UTRAN in order to use UMTS services and/or facilities. User system access may be initiated from either the mobile side, e.g. a mobile originated call, or the network side, e.g. a mobile terminated call. - Admission Control: The purpose of the admission control is to admit or deny new users, new radio access bearers or new radio links (for example due to handover). The admission control should try to avoid overload situations and base its decisions on interference and resource measurements. The admission control is employed at for example initial UE access, RAB assignment/reconfiguration and at handover. These cases may give different answers depending on priority and 63 Access Network Analysis situation. The Admission Control function based on UL (Up Link) interference and DL (Down Link) power is located in the Controlling RNC. The Serving RNC is performing admission Control towards the Iu interface. - Congestion Control: The task of congestion control is to monitor, detect and handle situations when the system is reaching a near overload or an overload situation with the already connected users. This means that some part of the network has run out, or will soon run out of resources. The congestion control should then bring the system back to a stable state as seamless as possible. Congestion Control is performed within the UTRAN. - System Information Broadcasting: This function provides the mobile station with the Access Stratum and Non Access Stratum information which are needed by the UE for its operation within the network. The basic control and synchronization of this function is located in UTR. - MOCN and GWCN Configuration Support: The MOCN is the Multi Operator Core Network and the GWCN is the GateWay Core Network. So, in the MOCN configuration only the radio access part of the network is shared. For the MOCN configuration it is required that the rerouting function is supported. In the GWCN configuration, besides shared radio access network, the core network operators also share part of the core network, at least MSC and/or SGSN. For both the GWCN and MOCN configurations, the RNC carries the selected PLMN-id between network sharing supporting UEs and the corresponding CN. • Radio Channel Ciphering and Deciphering: This function is a pure computation function whereby the radio transmitted data can be protected against a no authorized third-party. Ciphering and deciphering may be based on the usage of a session-dependent key, derived through signaling and/or session dependent information. This function is located in the UE and in the UTRAN. 64 Access Network Analysis • Functions related to Mobility: - Handover: This function manages the mobility of the radio interface. It is based on radio measurements and it is used to maintain the Quality of Service requested by the Core Network. Handover may be directed to/from another system (e.g. UMTS to GSM handover). The Handover function may be either controlled by the network, or independently by the UE. Therefore, this function may be located in the SRNC, the UE, or both. - SRNS Relocation: The SRNS (Serving RNS) Relocation function coordinates the activities when the SRNS role is to be taken over by another RNS/BSS. The SRNS relocation function manages the Iu interface connection mobility from an RNS to another RNS/BSS. The SRNS Relocation is initiated by the SRNC (Serving RNC). This function is located in the RNC and the CN. - Paging Support: This function provides the capability to request a UE to contact the UTRAN/GERAN Iu mode when the UE is in Idle. This function also encompasses a coordination function between the different Core Network Domains onto a single RRC connection. A RRC connection is a point-to-point bi-directional connection between RRC peer entities on the UE and the UTRAN sides, respectively. - Positioning: This function provides the capability to determine the geographic position of a UE. - NAS Node Selection Function: The optional NAS (Non Access Stratum) Node Selection Function (NNSF) enables the RNC to initially assign Core Network resources to serve a UE and subsequently setup a signaling connection to the assigned Core Network resource. • Functions related to Radio Resource Management and Control: Radio Resource Management is concerned with the allocation and maintenance of radio communication resources. UMTS radio resources must be shared between circuit transfer mode services and packet transfer modes services (i.e. Connection-oriented and/or connectionless-oriented services). 65 Access Network Analysis - Radio Resource Configuration and Operation: This function performs configures the radio network resources, i.e. cells and common transport channels, and takes the resources into or out of operation. - Radio Environment Survey: This function performs measurements on radio channels (current and surrounding cells) and translates these measurements into radio channel quality estimates. Measurements may include: 1. Received signal strengths (current and surrounding cells); 2. Estimated bit error ratios, (current and surrounding cells); 3. Estimation of propagation environments (e.g. high-speed, lowspeed, satellite, etc.); 4. Transmission range (e.g. through timing information); 5. Doppler shift; 6. Synchronization status; 7. Received interference level; 8. Total DL transmission power per cell. This function is located in the UE and in the UTRAN. - Combining/Splitting Control: This function controls the combining/splitting of information streams to receive/ transmit the same information through multiple physical channels (possibly in different cells) from/towards a single mobile terminal. In some cases, depending on physical network configuration, there may be several entities which combine the different information streams, i.e. there may be combining/splitting at the SRNC, DRNC or Node B level. This function is located in the UTRAN. - Connection Set-Up and Release: This function is responsible for the control of connection element set-up and release in the radio access sub network. The purpose of this function is: 1. To participate in the processing of the end-to-end connection setup and release; 66 Access Network Analysis 2. And to manage and maintain the element of the end-to-end connection, which is located in the radio access sub network. This function is located both in the UE and in the RNC. - Allocation and Deallocation of Radio Bearers: This function consists of translating the connection element set-up requests into physical radio channel allocation accordingly to the QoS of the Radio Access Bearer. This function is located in the CRNC (Controlling Radio Network Controller) and SRNC. - TDD – Dynamic Channel Allocation (DCA): Dynamic Channel Allocation (DCA) is an automatic process for assigning traffic channels in a frequency reuse wireless system. The base station continuously monitors the interference in all idle channels and makes an assignment using an algorithm that determines the channel that will produce the least amount of additional interference. DCA is used in the TDD mode. It includes Fast DCA and Slow DCA. Slow DCA is the process of assigning radio resources, including time slots, to different TDD cells according to the varying cell load. Fast DCA is the process of assigning resources to Radio Bearers, and is related to Admission Control. - Radio Protocol Functions: This function provides user data and signaling transfer capability across the UMTS radio interface by adapting the services (according to the QoS of the Radio Access Bearer) to the Radio transmission. - RF Power Control: This group of functions controls the level of the transmitted power in order to minimize interference and keep the quality of the connections. It consists of the following functions: UL/DL Outer/Inner Loop Power Control. - Radio Channel Coding: This function introduces redundancy into the source data flow, increasing its rate by adding information calculated from the source data, in order to allow the detection or correction of signal errors introduced by the transmission medium. The channel coding algorithm used and the amount of redundancy introduced may 67 Access Network Analysis be different for the different types of logical channels and different types of data. This function is located in both the UE and in the UTRAN. - Radio Channel Decoding: This function tries to reconstruct the source information using the redundancy added by the channel coding function to detect or correct possible errors in the received data flow. The channel decoding function may also employ a priori error likelihood information generated by the demodulation function to increase the efficiency of the decoding operation. The channel decoding function is the complement function to the channel coding function. This function is located in both the UE and in the UTRAN. - Channel Coding Control: This function generates control information required by the channel coding/decoding execution functions. This may include channel coding scheme, code rate, etc. This function is located in both the UE and in the UTRAN. - Initial (random) Access Detection and Handling: This function will have the ability to detect an initial access attempt from a mobile station and will respond appropriately. The handling of the initial access may include procedures for a possible resolution of colliding attempts, etc. The successful result will be the request for allocation of appropriate resources for the requesting mobile station. This function is located in the UTRAN. • Functions related to Broadcast and Multicast Services: - Broadcast/Multicast Information Distribution: The broadcast/multicast information distribution function distributes received CBS (Cell Broadcast Service) messages towards the BMC (Broadcast/Multicast Control) entities configured per cell for further processing. The distribution of broadcast/multicast information relate on the mapping between service area and cells controlled by the RNC. The provision of this mapping information is an O&M function. 68 Access Network Analysis - Broadcast/Multicast Flow Control: When processing units of the RNC becomes congested, the Broadcast/Multicast Flow Control function informs the data source about this congestion situation and takes means to resolve the congestion. • Functions related to MBMS (Multimedia Broadcast Multicast Service): - MBMS Provision: The MBMS provision enables the RNC to provide a multicast service via an optimized transmission of the MBMS bearer service in UTRAN via techniques such as PTM (Point-ToMultipoint) transmission, selective combining, Soft Combining and transmission mode selection between PTM and PTP (Point-To-Point) bearer. The MBMS provision enables the RNC to provide a broadcast service via a PTM transmission bearer. - MBMS Notification Coordination: The characteristic of MBMS implies a need for MBMS notification co-ordination i.e. specific handling of MBMS Notification when UE is in Cell-DCH state. MBMS notification co-ordination is performed by UTRAN when the session is ongoing. The TMGI (Temporary Mobile Group Identity) is used for coordination. 69 Access Network Analysis The scope of this section is to analyze each entity functionalities in the UTRAN, so in the Figure 23 it is shown and summarized which device performs the functions explained before. Figure 23: UTRAN Entities and Functions 70 Access Network Analysis 2.3 Access Networks Analysis: WiMAX The Mobile WiMAX End-to-End Network Architecture is based on All-IP platform, all packet technology with no legacy circuit telephony. It offers the advantage of reduced total cost of ownership during the lifecycle of a WiMAX network deployment. The use of All-IP means that a common network core can be used, without the need to maintain both packet and circuit core networks, with all the overhead that goes with it. The Mobile WiMAX End-To-End Network Architecture is composed of three main logical entities: MS, ASN, CSN. Each of these entities represents a grouping of functional entities. Each of these functions may be realized in a single physical device or may be distributed over multiple physical devices. The grouping and distribution of functions into physical devices within a functional entity (such as ASN) is an implementation choice; a manufacturer may choose any physical implementation of functions, either individually or in combination, as long as the implementation meets the functional and interoperability requirements. This section will focus on the WiMAX Access Network that can be individuated in the ASN. The ASN represents a boundary for functional interoperability with WiMAX clients, WiMAX connectivity service functions and aggregation of functions embodied by different vendors. As the ASN is just a logical entity, it is composed of two different physical devices: • Base Station • ASN Gateway This basic view of the many entities within the functional groupings of ASN is shown in Figure 24. 71 Access Network Analysis Figure 24: Network IP-Based Architecture Mapping of functional entities to logical entities may be performed in different ways, so the purpose of the analysis performed in this section is understanding how is composed the logical entity and the correspondence between the physical and functional entities. 2.3.1 Base Station The main task of the Mobile WiMAX Base Station is 802.16 Interface Handling, the interface (R1) between the MS and the ASN is via air interface (PHY and MAC) specifications (IEEE 802.16d/e). This interface (R1) may include additional protocols related to the management plane. Another important task is Processes Handling like: • Handover • Power Control • Network Entry Base Station also includes QoS PEP (Policy Enforcement Points) for traffic via air interface. 72 Access Network Analysis Furthermore, the Base Station is responsible of Micro Mobility HO triggering for mobility tunnel establishment, supporting Tunnelling Protocol toward ASN GW EP and Traffic Classification. Other main functionalities are: • Radio Resource Management Update • MS Activity Status Update (Active, Idle) • Session Management (RSVP Proxy) • DCHCP Proxy • Multicast Group Association Management (IGMP Proxy) • Key Management • TEK/KEK (Traffic Encryption Key/Key Encryption Key) Generation and Delivery to the BS/MS 2.3.2 ASN GW (Access Service Network Gateway) The ASN GW is the gateway between the Access Network (ASN) and the Core Network (CSN). So it must hold the interface between the ASN and the CSN (R3) which supports AAA, Policy Enforcement and Mobility Management capabilities. This interface (R3) also encompasses the bearer plane methods (e.g. tunnelling) to transfer IP data between the ASN and CSN. The main functions provided by the ASN GW are: • Intra ASN Location Management & Paging • Network Session/Mobility Management (server) • Regional Radio Resource Management & Admission control • ASN Temporary Cashing subscriber profile and encryption keys (ASN likeVLR) • AAA Client/Proxy • delivery Radius/Diameter messaging to selected CSN AAA • Mobility Tunneling establishment and management with BSs • Session/mobility management (client) • QoS and Policy Enforcement • Foreign Agent (FA) (with Proxy MIP) 73 Access Network Analysis • Routing to selected CSN Finally, the interface between the Base Station and the ASN GW is standardized and is called R6. It consists of a set of control and bearer plane protocols for communication between the BS and the ASN GW. The bearer plane consists of intraASN data path or inter-ASN tunnels between the BS and ASN GW. The control plane includes protocols for IP tunnel management (establish, modify, and release) in accordance with the MS mobility events. R6 may also serve as a conduit for exchange of MAC states information between neighboring BSs. 2.3.3 Functions Some general tenets have guided the development of Mobile WiMAX Network Architecture include the following features: • Provision of logical separation between such procedures and IP addressing, routing and connectivity management procedures and protocols to enable use of the access architecture primitives in standalone and interworking deployment scenarios, • Support for sharing of ASN(s) of a Network Access Provider (NAP) among multiple NSPs, • Support of a single NSP providing service over multiple ASN(s) – managed by one or more NAPs, • Support for the discovery and selection of accessible NSPs by an MS or SS • Support of NAPs that employ one or more ASN topologies, • Support of access to incumbent operator services through internetworking functions as needed, • Specification of open and well-defined reference points between various groups of network functional entities (within an ASN, between ASNs, between an ASN and a CSN, and between CSNs), and in particular between an MS, ASN and CSN to enable multi-vendor interoperability • Support for evolution paths between the various usage models subject to reasonable technical assumptions and constraints, 74 Access Network Analysis • Enabling different vendor implementations based on different combinations of functional entities on physical network entities, as long as these implementations comply with the normative protocols and procedures across applicable reference points, as defined in the network specifications • Support for the simplest scenario of a single operator deploying an ASN together with a limited set of CSN functions, so that the operator can offer basic Internet access service without consideration for roaming or interworking. The WIMAX architecture also allows both IP and Ethernet services, in a standard mobile IP compliant network. The flexibility and interoperability supported by the WiMAX network provides operators with a multi-vendor low cost implementation of a WiMAX network even with a mixed deployment of distributed and centralized ASN’s in the network. So, the major functions performed by the WiMAX Access Network can be summarized as: • Support for Service and Applications: The WiMAX Architecture includes the support for: - Voice, multimedia services and other mandated regulatory services such as emergency services and lawful interception - Access to a variety of independent Application Service Provider (ASP) networks in an agnostic manner - Mobile telephony communications using VoIP - Support interfacing with various interworking and media gateways permitting delivery of incumbent/inherit services translated over IP (for example, SMS over IP, MMS, WAP) to WiMAX access networks - Support delivery of IP Broadcast and Multicast services over WiMAX access networks • Security: The end-to-end WiMAX Network Architecture is based on a security framework that is agnostic to the operator type and ASN topology 75 Access Network Analysis and applies consistently internetworking deployment models and usage scenarios. In particular there is support for: - Strong mutual device authentication between an MS and the WiMAX network, based on the IEEE 802.16 security framework, - All commonly deployed authentication mechanisms and authentication in home and visited operator network scenarios based on a consistent and extensible authentication framework, - Data integrity, replay protection, confidentiality and non-repudiation using applicable key lengths, - Use of MS initiated/terminated security mechanisms such as Virtual Private Networks (VPNs), - Standard secure IP address management mechanisms between the MS/SS and its home or visited NSP. • Mobility and Handover: The end-to-end WiMAX Network Architecture has extensive capability to support mobility and handovers. It will: - Include vertical or inter-technology handovers— e.g., to Wi-Fi, 3GPP, 3GPP2, DSL, or MSO – when such capability is enabled in multi-mode MS - Support IPv4 or IPv6 based mobility management. Within this framework, and as applicable, the architecture will accommodate MS with multiple IP addresses and simultaneous IPv4 and IPv6 connections, - Support roaming between NSPs, - Utilize mechanisms to support seamless handovers at up to vehicular speeds— satisfying well defined. Some of the additional capabilities in support of mobility include the support of: - Dynamic and static home address configurations, - Dynamic assignment of the Home Agent in the service provider network as a form of route optimization, as well as in the home IP network as a form of load balancing, 76 Access Network Analysis - Dynamic assignment of the Home Agent based on policies. • Scalability, Extensibility, Coverage and Operator Selection: The end-to-end WiMAX Network Architecture has useful support for scalable, extensible operation and flexibility in operator selection. In particular, it will: - Enable a user to manually or automatically select from available NAPs and NSPs, - Enable ASN and CSN system designs that easily scale upward and downward – in terms of coverage, range or capacity - Accommodate a variety of ASN topologies – including hub-and-spoke, hierarchical, and/or multi-hop interconnects - Accommodate a variety of backhaul links, both wireline and wireless with different latency and throughput characteristics - Support incremental infrastructure deployment - Support phased introduction of IP services that in turn scale with increasing number of active users and concurrent IP services per user - Support the integration of base stations of varying coverage and capacity - for example, pico, micro, and macro base stations - Support flexible decomposition and integration of ASN functions in ASN network deployments in order to enable use of load balancing schemes for efficient use of radio spectrum and network resources Additional features pertaining to manageability and performance of WiMAX Network Architecture include: - Support a variety of online and offline client provisioning, enrollment, and management schemes based on open, broadly deployable, IP-based, industry standards - Accommodation of Over-The-Air (OTA) services for MS terminal provisioning and software upgrades - Accommodation of use of header compression/suppression and/or payload compression for efficient use of the WiMAX radio resources. • Multi-Vendor Interoperability: Another key aspect of the WiMAX Network Architecture is the support of interoperability between equipment from 77 Access Network Analysis different manufacturers within an ASN and across ASNs. Such interoperability will include interoperability between: - BS and backhaul equipment within an ASN, - Various ASN elements (possibly from different vendors) and CSN, with minimal or no degradation in functionality or capability of the ASN. The IEEE 802.16 standard defines multiple convergence sub-layers. The WiMAX Network Architecture framework supports a variety of CS types including: Ethernet CS, IPv4 CS and IPv6 CS. • Quality of Service: The WiMAX Network Architecture has provisions for support of QoS mechanisms. In particular, it enables flexible support of simultaneous use of a diverse set of IP services. The architecture supports: - Differentiated levels of QoS: coarse-grained (per user/terminal) and/or fine-grained (per service flow per user/terminal), - Admission control, - Bandwidth management - Implementation of policies as defined by various operators for QoSbased on their SLAs (including policy enforcement per user and user group as well as factors such as location, time of day, etc.). Extensive use is made of standard IETF mechanisms for managing policy definition and policy enforcement between operators. The flexible WiMAX network specifications allows different implementations of Access Service Network (ASN) configurations namely ASN profiles, including both distributed/collapsed as well as centralized architectures. Furthermore, the WiMAX forum is developing an interoperability framework in which intra-ASN and inter-ASN interoperability across different vendors is ensured. 78 Access Network Analysis 2.4 Access Networks Analysis: DVB-H DVB-H is principally a transmission system allowing reception of broadcast information on single antenna handheld mobile devices. It provides an efficient way of carrying multimedia services over digital terrestrial broadcasting networks to handheld terminals (DVB-H). So, the DVB-H network can not be considered as an Access Network in the way that is usually meant. DVB-H is a really delivering network. No channel access method is used to share a communications channel or physical communications medium between multiple users. According to the scope of this thesis, in this section the whole DVB-H network is considered as the Access Network, always keeping in mind that the communication is unidirectional (only in downlink). Because DVB-H is a broadcasting technology, the functionalities performed by DVB-H devices are regarding exclusively on the signal transmission and on the carousel information synchronization. In addition to these (based on DVB-T transmission), a DVB-H network provides some functionalities related to the mobility. It is very important to underline that these functionalities just allow the mobility but they do not manage it. The Mobility Management is not possible because there is not a return channel and, most of all, User Localization and Identification are not broadcast transmission requirements. There are three possible architectures for a DVB-H network: DVB-H Standalone and Shared network DVB-H/T by multiplexing or hierarchical modulation. In the first one the DVB-H system has a dedicated multiplexer and the elements composing this kind of architecture are shown in Figure 25. Figure 25: Headend Construction for Dedicated Multiplex 79 Access Network Analysis The IP Encapsulator is assumed to take responsibility for generating MPE sections from incoming IP datagrams, as well as to add the required PSI/SI data. Also, MPEFEC Frames, when used, are generated in the IP Encapsulator. The output stream of the IP Encapsulator is composed of MPEG-2 transport packets. Instead, a shared network is a network of DVB-T transmitters is serving both DVBH and DVB-T terminals. The existing DVB-T network has to be, however, designed for portable indoor reception so that it can provide high enough field strength for the hand-held terminals inside the wanted service area. The only required modification in the transmitters is an update so that the DVB-H signaling bits and Cell ID bits are added to the TPS information of the transmitter. The actual sharing is done at the multiplex level. DVB-H offers a full flexibility to select the wanted portion of the multiplex to DVB-H services. The key DVB-H component in the network is the IP-Encapsulator, where the MPE of IP data, time slicing, and MPE-FEC are implemented. Another possibility to share the network is to use the DVB-T hierarchical modulation. In that case the MPEG-2 and DVB-H IP services will have their own independent TS inputs in the DVB-T transmitters. The DVB-H services would use the high-priority part, which would offer increased robustness over the low-priority input, which is then used for the normal digital TV services. In Figure 26 a shared network by multiplexing is illustrated and its components are highlighted. Figure 26: Headend Construction for Mixed Multiplex 80 Access Network Analysis In order to introduce DVB-H services into an existing DVB-T network using multiplexing, the following steps are required, in any order: • Timeslice-capable IP Encapsulators are connected to the last-hop multiplexer, which is ideally located in each coverage area (MFN or SFN), and a fixed amount of bitrate is reserved for DVB-H services • The last-hop-multiplexers are upgraded for better DVB-H support (smoothing of reinserted PSI/SI tables, management of INT table) • If necessary, improve the coverage of the DVB-T network (more cells, upgrade of single-transmitter cells to SFN-areas, addition of radio frequency repeaters) The possibility to have global and local IP services is the same as in the case of a dedicated DVB-H network, and the properties of the IP backbone network are the same. The number of last-hop-multiplexers determines the granularity of service coverage areas. This is why these multiplexers (and with them the IP encapsulators) are ideally located locally in each coverage area (MFN or SFN). For network-wide distribution of IP streams, there is now an additional option: the IP streams can be encapsulated centrally, and distributed to the sites within a centrally produced transport stream, which is then re-multiplexed by the last-hop-multiplexer to produce the final transport stream that is broadcast. Whether or not this is a good option depends on many factors. IP networks can be expected to be cheaper, more scalable, and simpler to manage than transport stream distribution networks. But if there is capacity available in an existing transport stream distribution network, why not use it, especially if there is no IP network available. In this case, the centrally encapsulated IP streams should not be timesliced, but simply embedded in the transport stream using normal multi-protocol encapsulation. The local IP Encapsulator can then decapsulate these IP streams, and timeslice them as any other IP stream that is received over the IP backbone network. It would be technically possible and allowed by the standard to timeslice also the centrally encapsulated IP streams, and to add locally another set of timesliced IP streams. However, this would not be optimal from power-saving perspective. 81 Access Network Analysis As timeslicing is a technology for reduction of power consumption of a mobile handheld terminal, there is no need for central timeslicing. A shared network by hierarchical modulation is quite different as it is shown in Figure 27. Figure 27: Headend Construction for Hierarchical Tranmission In order to introduce DVB-H services into an existing DVB-T network using hierarchical modulation, the following steps are required: 1. If necessary, replace modulators with models that support hierarchical mode and put a 2nd synchronized transport stream distribution system in place for modulators in SFN-areas 2. Timeslice-capable IP Encapsulators are connected to the modulators, or, in case of SFN-areas, to the SFN timestamp inserter If necessary, improve the coverage of the DVB-T network (more cells, upgrade of single-transmitter cells to SFN-areas, addition of radio frequency repeaters). From DVB-H perspective, this case is identical to having a dedicated DVB-H network, so all the comments on how to construct an IP backbone network and how to mix global and local IP streams are the same. Hence, the main elements of a DVB-H network are the IP Encapsulator, the Multiplexer and the DVB-H Modulator. 82 Access Network Analysis 2.4.1 IP Encapsulator The IP Encapsulator puts the IP packets into TS packets using the MPE protocol. It is composed by the Time-Slicing Module and MPE-FEC Module. The Time-Slicing Module controls the receiver/transmitter to decode the requested service and shut off during the other service bits. It aims to reduce power consumption while also enabling a smooth and seamless frequency handover. The MPE-FEC module offers, in addition to the error correction in the physical layer transmission, a complementary FEC function that allows the receiver/transmitter to cope with particularly difficult reception situations. As we said before, DVB has introduced multiprotocol encapsulation (MPE) for encoding OSI-model layer 3 (Network Layer) datagrams into TS packets. Each IP datagram is encoded into a single MPE section. A Single Elementary Stream may contain multiple MPE section streams. The IPDC DVB-H Receiver may differentiate MPE encoded IP streams by checking the IP source and/or destination address in the IP datagram carried within an MPE section. In such case, the Receiver does not differentiate MPE section streams, but is directly filtering IP streams. For such a Receiver, there is no need to differentiate MPE section streams within an Elementary Stream. 2.4.2 Multiplexer A DVB network consists of one or more Transport Streams (TS) each carrying a multiplex and being transmitted by one or more DVB signals. A MUX multiplexes a set of DVB services together, and then these services are carried over a Transport Stream. A TS carries exactly one multiplex (set of services). If one multiplex is transmitted on two different radio signals (i.e. DVB signals) within a DVB network, the DVB signals carry the same TS. However, if the DVB signals belong to different DVB networks, the TSs are different. In both cases, the set of DVB signals, PSI information and multiplex identifiers are identical. However, in later case, SI information (particularly the information about the actual DVB network) is different. In such a case, only one multiplex occurs, even though the information was carried on two different TSs. 83 Access Network Analysis Therefore, a multiplex is a set of DVB services, while a TS is a bitstream carrying a multiplex and related PSI/SI information. A multiplex may be delivered on multiple DVB networks, while a TS belongs to exactly one DVB network. Within a DVB network, a TS may be carried on multiple DVB signals. A DVB signal using non-hierarchical modulation carries one TS, while a DVB signal using hierarchical modulation carries two TSs. A DVB service is a sequence of program events, each of which groups together a set of components, each carried in its own Elementary Stream. 2.4.3 Modulator The Modulator works on the physical layer. It performs the modulation of the signal using OFDM symbols. In compliance with the DVB-T, the DVB-H Modulator can work in 2k and 8k mode. Furthermore it can operate in the 4k mode. The additional 4k transmission mode is a scaled set of the parameters defined for the 2k and 8k modes. In order to further improve robustness of the DVB-T 2k and 4k modes in a mobile environment and impulse noise reception conditions, an in-depth symbol interleaver is also standardized. In the Modulator, the TPS-bit signaling provides robust multiplex level signaling capability to the DVB-T transmission system. 2.4.4 Features The main features of a DVB-H system are summarized in Figure 28. 84 Access Network Analysis Figure 28: Main Features of a DVB-H System 85 Access Network Analysis 2.5 Access Networks Comparison After studying the three access networks considered in the previous paragraphs, this section will be focused on the different functionalities of each element, within each network, in order to find similarities and differences between them. Finding common functionalities of the different Access Networks devices is needed to reach a Convergent Access Network between different architectures, in particular the UMTS Release 6, Mobile WiMAX and DVB-H ones. It is important to underline that DVB-H is a broadcast technology, so it does not really have an access network. Because the transmission is not bidirectional and there is not the need of knowing who and where the users are, it is more difficult to find similarities with the other two technologies. Hence, the parallelism is less obvious. Figure 29: DVB-H “Access Network” Figure 29 shows which are the components of a DVB-H Access Network, described in the previous paragraph. On the other side, UMTS and WiMAX are point-multipoint technologies. They can be matched easier because of their comparable features, although they work in quite different ways. For example, they use different multiple access schemes, modulation modes, channel management, etc... The UMTS and WiMAX Access Network are respectively illustrated in Figure 30 and in Figure 31. 86 Access Network Analysis Figure 30: UMTS Access Network As these pictures show, I have supposed an IP Core Network not specified yet in this section, in order to analyze these three Access Networks and to study their functionalities comparing their devices. The Core Network will be introduced in the next chapter. Figure 31: WiMAX Access Network For the reasons listed before, the result of the Access Network Analysis is that it is not possible to reach a physical convergence for the access networks. In fact, kinds of features like frequency, bandwidth, modulation mode, channel management, transport protocol, policy rules, etc are peculiar to each technology. Thus, I have looked for a unique architectural block model, that although every technology has its own specific features, it simplifies their analogous functionalities. This effort is summarized and shown in Table 8. 87 Access Network Analysis Table 8: Devices Functionality Comparison The Table 8 shows that the DVB-H Modulator, the UMTS Node B and the WiMAX Base Station play similar roles, as does the DVB-H Encapsulator, the UMTS RNC and the WiMAX ASN-GW. However, it is evident that this association is forced because we can see that some functions are performed by the RNC and the Base Station, relative to the UMTS and WiMAX. Some of the functionalities needed for the comparison are not performed by any DVB-H device. The reason for this is that DVB-H is broadcast, so it does not provide all the functions related to the Location and Radio Resource Management, Channel Allocation, Admission Control, Ciphering, Scheduling and QoS Management. Considering that each technology (DVB-H, UMTS and WiMAX) has a mobile user terminal, the user mobility is always possible but the Mobility Management is supported only by the UMTS and WiMAX. From this study results also that the DVB-H MUX is not involved in the comparison because it does not perform any functionality related to the signal processing, furthermore its role depends on the DVB-H network architecture used. Let’s now consider each function in detail. The Handover is a function allowed in the DVB-H thanks to the time-slicing performed inside the Encapsulator, while in the UMTS and WiMAX handover is based on radio measurements performed by Node B and the Base Station together with UE. On the other side, the Handover Control is managed by the RNC and the ASN-GW. It is the same situation concerning the 88 Access Network Analysis Power Control, in fact in the DVB-H there is not a dynamic power management because in transmission the power is determined in advance. However, the TimeSlicing Module in the DVB-H Modulator allows power saving in the UE (requirement needed for mobile terminals). In the UMTS (WCDMA system) the Power Control plays a fundamental role because the mobile terminals work at the same frequency and time inside a cell8. So, the power in both downlink and uplink needs to be the minimum to ensure the Signal-to-Ratio (SIR) required by the service. During a communication, UE and UTRAN exchange power control messages. The Air Interface is distinguished for each technology [Chapter 1]. Mainly the DVBH Air Interface works only in transmission while the UMTS and WiMAX ones can act also as receivers. The Modulation/Demodulation are functions performed by the DVB-H Modulator, UMTS Node B and WiMAX Base Station but the modulation mode used changes. In the DVB-H system the most usable modulation scheme for a mobile and portable reception is 16-QAM with a code rate of ½ or 2/3 (requiring a moderate C/N)9. This modulation scheme is only in DL (downlink), in fact the DVB-H Modulator is able to perform only the Modulation while the Demodulation is a own function of the User Terminal (DVB-H Receiver). On the contrary, WiMAX and UMTS support modulation schemes both for DL (Modulation) and UL (Demodulation). WiMAX provides different modulation: QPSK, 16-QAM and 64-QAM (mandatory in DL and optional in UL) with 1/2, 2/3, 3/4 and 5/6 convolutional code or convolutional turbo code. The modulation used by the UMTS is QPSK and spreading and scrambling codes are applied. Other kinds of functions like Ciphering, Scheduling, Channel Allocation and so on are performed only by UMTS and WiMAX, because they are bidirectional pointmultipoint technologies. Anyway, these functions are performed by UMTS and WiMAX in different ways [Chapter 1]. 8 The near-far problem makes the Power Control in UMTS a critical issue Providing enough capacity to meet commercial requirements, the available constellations for a DVBH system are QPSK, 16-QAM and eventually, although not recommended, 64-QAM. The FEC code rate can be 1/2, 2/3, 3/4, 5/6 and 7/8. 9 89 Access Network Analysis 2.6 A UNIQUE ARCHITECTURAL BLOCK MODEL FOR ACCESS NETWORK ANALYSIS AND COMPARISON Starting from the considerations made in the previous paragraph I have built a model of the access network. Table 9 proves that the Access Networks can be modeled as a unique logical access network, but the physical convergence is unachievable. Table 9: Logical Access Network As different blocks could be joined into one physical device or a physical device could be split into several functional blocks, a one-to-one correspondence with the real architectures is not always possible. Figure 32: Architectural Block Model Figure 32 shows the unique architectural block model that I have proposed in order to represent the access network. It is composed of three main functional blocks which are the Air Interface Control Module, Enforcement Module and 90 Access Network Analysis Decision&Control Module. Each function of DVB-H, WiMAX and UMTS Access Network elements can be mapped into these blocks. As said before, some elements are split up and others are grouped together. This block model could be seen as a tree where the Decision&Control Module controls more Enforcement Modules and each Enforcement Module is responsible of many Air Interfaces Control Modules. The logical blocks that I have identified are explained in the following paragraphs. 2.6.1 Air Interface Control Module This module is the access network end-point and it manages the physical channel with the user. It is related to just one cell. Some of its most important functions are: • Handover • Air Interface Transmission/Reception • Power Control • Modulation/Demodulation The devices that compose the Air Interface Control Module are the Modulator for the DVB-H, the Node B for the UMTS and the Base Station for the WiMAX. 2.6.2 Enforcement Module The Enforcement Module is responsible for the resource allocation and distribution. It mainly enforces functions controlled by the Decision&Control Module. Some of the major functions are: • Radio Resource Management Update • Active Set Update • Ciphering • Scheduling • Channel Allocation This module does not hold any DVB-H device because the functions it performs are not needed for the broadcasting transmission. This module is the one that makes the 91 Access Network Analysis parallelism between UMTS and WiMAX devices less clear, considering that it comprises the RNC and the Base Station. So, the Enforcement Module is the critical issue in order to reach a unique Access Network. 2.6.3 Decision & Control Module It is the module that manages all of the functions in the access network. It is the supervisor of a set of cells. It is responsible for: • Power Control • UE Location Management • Radio Resource Control • Handover Control • Admission Control • Mobility Management • QoS Management • Interface to the Core Network The UMTS RNC and WiMAX ASN GW are placed inside the Decision&Control Module. The DVB-H Encapsulator also belongs to this module but it does not performs all the functions related to the Location, Radio Resource, Mobility and Admission Control for the reasons explained before. Handover Control is signed as function provided by the DVB-H Encapsulator but it is performed in a quite different way compared with the UMTS or WIMAX one. The Interface to the Core Network is the only one functionality provided by all three of these devices and it distinguishes each technology. 92 Core Network Description CHAPTER THREE 3. CORE NETWORK: IMS TECHNICAL DESCRIPTION 3.1 Introduction In the previous chapter the Access Network was described and the accomplishment was a unique architectural block model that needs to converge to one single Core Network. Thus, in this section the Core Network is analyzed. The IMS is the best choice for the Core Network because is the standard one that gathers all the features needed to the convergence. The IMS (IP Multimedia Subsystem) is a standard that defines a generic architecture for multimedia services. IMS standard supporting multiple access types has the goal of offering Internet services everywhere and at any time on different devices, so it is the key for implementing fixed-mobile convergence. As the cellular networks already provide a wide range of services (in fact any cellular user can access the Internet using a data connection), all the power of the Internet is already available for 3G users through the packet-switched domain, but IMS is necessary to achieve three purposes: QoS (Quality of Service), charging, and integration of different services. So, the reason for creating the IMS was to provide the QoS required for real time multimedia sessions (packet-switched domain provides a best effort service without QoS), to be able to charge multimedia sessions appropriately (a multimedia session in the packet-switched domain usually transfers a large amount of data that may generate large expenses to the user) and, finally, to provide integrated services to users. Operators want to be able to use services developed by third parties, combine them, integrate them with services they already have, and provide the user with a completely new service. Furthermore, the aim of the IMS is not only to provide new services but to provide all the services that Internet provides. IMS achieves this by using a layered and horizontal architecture where service enablers and common function can be reused for multiple applications. This simplifies the interoperability 93 Core Network Description and roaming, and providing bearer control, charging, and security. From an architectural point of view IMS uses SIP protocol for signaling. The 3GPP IMS, that is a part of 3GPP Release 5, is a standard implemented by the Third Generation Partnership Project. It uses IPv6 and other advanced IP technologies. Many of the capabilities of these technologies have been incorporated into the design of the IMS architecture. This includes nearly limitless addresses, QoS control, access independence (WLAN etc), IPSec and IPv6 routing efficiency. The migration to an all IP context lowers maintenance costs (this is partly because the maintenance platforms are based on open standards). It also establishes the operation of new services that can be accessed by different types of terminal devices. Today IP implementations are almost all IPv4 based and many of the advanced IP technologies that have been assumed in the design of the IMS architecture are currently not deployed on a large scale. Introducing IMS services into existing 3GPP networks therefore requires upgrades in many parts of the system. New or enhanced features have to be available in the different components that are involved in the endto-end service provisioning. Implementing IMS will have a large impact on network structures, terminals, packetswitched domain nodes, nodes for IP support (e.g. DNS and AAA servers), IMS servers and application server, therefore there is doubt on the wide-spread availability of the required critical components for 3GPP compliant IMS deployment. 3.1.1 Why IMS? As said before, IMS provides QoS benefits, cost savings and the deployment of new applications. The main problem with using the packet-switched domain is that it performs a “best effort” service, which is inadequate for real-time communication, because of the bandwidth and delay variations. But, IMS fixes this problem. Furthermore, IMS enables the operator to know the data type and the best way to charge the data stream (not only based on the number of byte transferred). For example, a video conference in the packet-switched domain needs a lot of audiovideo data and this can be very expensive if the operator charges the service proportionally to the transferred bytes. Instead, knowing the type of data thanks to 94 Core Network Description IMS, the operator can select a different charging criteria based on time, QoS or other service features. IMS allows the operators to use services developed by others and combine them, which provides innovative services for users. For example, if an operator has voicemail service, it can buy a test-speech conversion service and combine them to give a speech version of the messages to blind people. Because IMS uses Internet technology and protocols it can provide all of the Internet services also to mobile users. Users can enjoy these services in roaming as well as in their home network. IMS based on packet switching can provide more efficient services than UMTS based on circuit switching. Every service, thanks to the SIP protocol, knows all the changes of the session, and therefore can provide new functionality. For example it can give off an alert when the presence state of a colleague changes from busy to free and allows the user to invite the colleague to take part in a video conference. Because the service can know all the session features, it can make a lot of operations without sending data which saves bandwidth. So, it can provide better QoS to the user or serve more users with the same QoS. IMS employs devices that don’t access to the circuit switched domain so the number of IMS users who can connect increases considerably. 3.1.2 The Introduction of IMS The introduction of IMS is an innovation regarding the whole network: both the core network and the radio access network, creating an integration of different core networks into one based on packet switching. It will be able to use just one platform to provide multimedia services. The objective of the introduction of IMS is the unification of the platforms that supply the services. This allows the definitions of the services to be the same quality for all users, independent of the technology that they use to access the network. As signaling is needed for multimedia sessions control, it is placed on the application layer. Signaling goes through the same path as the user traffic, instead of separated from it, as it was before. That has a considerable effect on channel configuration because the channels also have to administrate a signaling filter. 95 Core Network Description In order to manage communication session and packet-switched media, assuring traditional network compatibility (as ISDN or PSTN), new nodes need to be introduced. The impact that this new technology has on the network is tied to the introduction of new protocols and network nodes. In order to realize and manage the sessions (SIP/SDP protocols), an evolution of the signaling gateway is necessary. This will allow the realization of all the service configurations that are based on both the terminals and the access network. We have to also consider that we will need to introduce the protocols that are necessary to manage the real-time services (i.e. RTP/RTCP). They will allow appropriate packet switching that meets the requirements of the imperceptible delays (delays not perceived by the user). The migration from a circuit-switched platform to a packet-switched one also needs to take into consideration the management of the additional overload that is created by the transmission. In fact, in circuit switching the voice, or otherwise the coded stream of the voice, is transported by the network in a transparent mode. The migration to the packet switching requires both payload (real content and voice communication) and header (additional data). Because of the lower bitrate of this service (12.2 kbps for the voice), the overload (the additional load of transport data) can become enormous—up to almost 100%. It is therefore necessary to determine the optimal configuration of the radio channels in order to assure the quality of service for the flow of the signaling (SIP/SDP), which is something that does not exist in circuit switching, and also for the protocols that serve to transport voice and control data. 3.2 The Architecture of IMS When one thinks of IMS architecture, it is important to keep in mind that the Third Generation Partnership Project (3GPP) does not standardize roles, but instead functions. The importance of the requirements is in the standardized interfaces. This creates a flexible architecture where implementers can combine different functions into a single node or split that function into multiple nodes. In order to access the IMS network, the end user needs a terminal which is referred to as a User Equipment 96 Core Network Description (UE). This terminal could be a mobile device, Personal Digital Assistant (PDA), or even a computer. In addition, the modes of access to the network are variable. The terminals can not only connect using a radio link, but can also use WLAN or ADSL. The nodes included in the IP Multimedia Core Network Subsystem are: • User Databases, called HSS (Home Subscriber Service) and SLF (Subscriber Location Function) • SIP servers, called CSCF (Call Section Control Function) • AS (Application Service) • MRF (Media Resource Functions) each one further divided into: - MRFC (Media Resource Function Controller) - MRFP (Media Resource Function Processor) • BGCF (Breakout Gateway Control Function) • PSTN gateway, each divided into: - SGW (Signaling Gateway) - MGCF (Media Gateway Controller Function) - MGW (Media Gateway) Figure 33: Architecture of IMS 97 Core Network Description 3.2.1 The HSS and SLF Databases The Home Subscriber Subsystem (HSS) holds all of the user’s personal information. This allows the user to log on to the network by holding his or her subscription data that is required to run the multimedia sessions. Possible Data: • Location Information • Security Information (Authentication and Authorization) • User Profile Information (Service that User is Subscribed to) • Serving-CSCF allocated to user A network may contain more than one HSS, but the information for a single user is stored in a single HSS. If a network has more than one HSS it needs a SLF, which is a database that maps the users’ addresses. When a node queries the SLF to obtain information related to a particular user, the SLF locates the correct HSS containing the user’s information. 3.2.2 The CSCF The CSCF (Call/Session Control Function) is a SIP server that is essential to IMS. The three types of this server are: • P-CSCF (Proxy-CSCF) • I-CSCF (Interrogating-CSCF) • S-CSCF (Serving-CSCF) 3.2.2.1 P-CSCF P-CSCF is the first point of contact (in the signaling place) between the IMS terminal and the IMS network. This means that all requests initiated by the IMS terminal or destined to the IMS terminal traverse the P-CSCF. P-CSCF is necessary to receive the requests and forward them in the appropriate direction, either towards the IMS terminal or towards the IMS network. During IMS registration, a particular P-CSCF is allocated to each IMS terminal. That P-CSCF never changes for the duration of the registration. 98 Core Network Description The following are some of the most important functions of the P-CSCF: • Security: One of the functions of P-CSCF is security. It first establishes some IPsec security associations toward the IMS terminal. The IPsec is a security standard that allows the encryption and authentication of IP packets. P-CSCF authenticates the user and asserts his or her identity to the other nodes in the network. This means it is not necessary for the other nodes to further authenticate the user, because they trust the P-CSCF. • SIP Verification: Another function of the P-CSCF is to verify the SIP requests to the terminal in order verify that they are appropriate for the SIP rules that govern that terminal. • SIP Message Compressor and Decompressor: This compresses the SIP message in order to gain bandwidth, and then decompresses it at the receiving end. • PDF: The P-CSCF may include a PDF (Policy Decision Function) that authorizes and media planes and manages QoS over the media plane. • Charging: Generates charging information toward a charging collection node. The P-CSCF may be located either in the visited network or in the home network. When the packet network is based on GPRS, the P-CSCF is always located in the same network where the GGSN (Gateway GPRS Support Node) is located. 3.2.2.2 The I-CSCF The I-CSCF is a SIP proxy server located at the edge of an administrative domain. The DSN (Domain Name System) records of the domain hold the address of the ICSCF. When a SIP server looks for the next hop for a message it obtains the address of an I-CSCF belonging to the destination domain. I-CSCF interfaces with HSS and SLF. It finds the user location information and routes the SIP request to the appropriate destination. Optionally I-CSCF may encrypt part of the messages if it has sensitive information about the domain. Typically, I-CSCF is located in the home network. 99 Core Network Description 3.2.2.3 The S-CSCF Although the S-CSCF is basically a SIP server it also performs session control. It works as a SIP registrar as well so it can connect the user location (IP address of the user’s terminal) with Public User Identity (the user’s SIP address of record). When a user is connecting to the IMS network, S-CSCF HSS’s interface informs HSS that it is the allocated S-CSCF for the registered user and gets user authentication vector. S-CSCF has a central role in the network: all the SIP signaling to or from the IMS terminal passes through the allocated S-CSCF. It analyzes the SIP messages to determinate the application servers that they have to cross. Each of these servers will be able to provide its services to the user. If the user dials a telephone number instead of a SIP URI the S-CSCF provides translation the service. S-CSCF has a policy role which inhibits the user from performing an unauthorized session. S-CSCF is located in the home network. 3.2.3 The AS The AS (Application Server) is a SIP entity interfaced with S-CSCF that hosts and executes services. It can operate like the following: • SIP proxy • SIP UA (User Agent): endpoint • SIP B2BUA (Back-to-Back User Agent): concatenation of two SIP User Agents There are three types of AS: • SIP AS (Application Server): the native AS that hosts and executes IP Multimedia Services based on SIP • OSA-SCS (Open Service Access – Service Capability Server): this application server provides an interface to the OSA framework Application Server. It has all the OSA capabilities, including the ability to access securely to IMS from external network. 100 Core Network Description • IM-SSF (IP Multimedia Switching Function): this server permits the reuse of CAMEL (Customized Application for Mobile network Enhanced Logic) services developed for GSM and it allows a gsmSCF (GSM Service Control Function). The AS may optionally interface to the HSS but only when the AS is located in the Home Network. 3.2.4 The MRF The MRF (Media Resource Network) is located in the home network and provides it with a source of media. This allows the home network to play announcements, mixed media streams (e.g. in centralized conference bridge), transcode between different codes, obtain statistics, and perform analyses. It is divided into: • MRFC (MRF Controller): a signaling plane node that acts as a User Agent. It contains a SIP interface towards the S-CSCF and controls the resources in MSFP. • MRFP (MRF Processor): a media plane node 3.2.5 The BGCF The BGCF is a SIP server with routing functionality based on telephone numbers. It is used in sessions that are initiated by an IMS terminal and addressed to a user in the circuit-switched network (like PSTN or PLMN). Depending on where the destination user BGCF is located: • if this network isn’t the one where the BGCF is located, it selects an appropriate network where interworking with the circuit-switched domain is to occur; • if interworking is to occur in the same network where the BGCF is located, it selects an appropriate PSTN/CS gateway. 101 Core Network Description 3.2.6 The PSTN/CS Gateway The PSTN/CS gateway provides an interface toward a circuit-switched network, allowing IMS terminals to make and receive calls to and from the PSTN. The PSTN/CS gateway is further divided into three functional elements: • SGW (Signaling Gateway): interfaces with the signaling plane of the CS network and performs lower layer protocol conversion. • MGCF (Media Gateway Control Function): central node of the PSTN/CS gateway, witch implements a state machine that does protocol conversion and maps SIP (the call control protocol on the IMS side) to either ISUP over IP or BICC over IP (the call control protocol in circuit-switched networks). In addition it controls the resources in an MGW. • MGW (Media Gateway): interfaces the media plane of the PSTN or CS network and: - It is able to send and receive IMS media over the Real-Time Protocol (RTP), - It uses PCM (Pulse Code Modulation) time slots to connect to the CS network, - It performs transcodification when the IMS terminal does not support the codec used by the CS side. 3.2.7 Home and Visited Networks IMS inherits the concepts of home networks (our operator’s network) and visited networks (the network of another operator who manage our operator’s no covered area). If there is a roaming agreement between the home and visited network, where some aspects like costs or quality of services are defined, the user benefits from the same service that is provided by his home network. 3.2.8 Identification in the IMS As in the PSTN (Public Switched Telephone Network) users are identified with their telephone numbers and the service with some special number like 800, in IMS we need some identification method too. 102 Core Network Description 3.2.8.1 Public User Identification An IMS user is allocated with one or more Public User Identities that identify him in a deterministic way like the MSISDN in GSM. A public User Identity is either a SIP URI (e.g. sip: [email protected]) or a TEL URL (+39-06-123456). Additionally, it is possible to include a telephone number in a SIP URL (sip: [email protected]; user=phone). The Public User Identities are needful to route the SIP signaling. We need all this type of format for the Public User Identities in order to allow the interaction between different type of terminals like computers and telephones. There are reasons for allocating more than one Public User Identity to a user, such us having the ability to differentiate personal identities like the private and the business one or for triggering a different set of services. 3.2.8.2 Private User Identities Each IMS subscriber is assigned a Private User Identity that isn’t SIP URI or TEL URL but takes the format of NAI (Network Access Identifier). Private User Identities are exclusively used for subscription purposes and not for routing SIP requests so the users don’t need to know it. They are stored in a smart card like IMSI in SIM for GSM. 3.2.8.3 The relation between Public and Private User Identities Every user has a Private User Identity and one or more Public User Identity, this data are stored in the HSS. 3.2.8.4 Public Service Identities The Public Service Identity is an identity allocated to a service that can take the format of a SIP URI or a TEL URL. 3.2.9 SIM, USIM and ISIM in 3GPP The UICC (Universal Integrated Circuit Card) is a removable card that contains a limited storage of data, including subscription information, authentication keys, a phone book, and messages. Removing the smart card from a terminal and inserting it into another one the user can easily move his subscription. 103 Core Network Description UICC is a generic term that defines the physical characteristics of the smart card, like the number and the positions of the pins or the voltage values that define a standard interface between the UICC and the terminal. The UICC may contain several applications: • SIM (Subscriber Identity Module): provides storage for a collection of parameters for the identification of the user and the service, which are essential for operating in a GSM network. Sometime it is used to refer to the physical card whereas in this case UICC is more appropriated. • USIM (Universal Subscriber Identity Module): is an application that resides in third-generation UICCs. It provide another set of parameters, similar in nature but different from those provided by SIM, useful for the identification of the user and the service in a UMTS (Universal Mobile Telecommunication) network. • ISIM (IP Multimedia Service Identity Module): contains the collection of parameters that are used for user identification, user authentication, and terminal configuration when the terminal operates in the IMS. Among other things it will contain Private and Public User Identity, Home Network Domain URL (used to find the home network during the registration procedure) and Long-term secret (a key for authentication, encrypt/decrypt or integrity purpose). The user can not modify these parameters. ISIM, USIM and SIM can co-exist in the same UICC. Access to the 3GPP IMS network relies on presence of either an ISIM or a USIM application in the UICC although ISIM is preferred because it is tailored to the ISIM. Non-3GPP IMS networks that do not support UICC in the IMS terminals store the parameters contained in the ISIM as a part of terminal’s configuration or in the terminal’s build-in memory. 104 Core Network Description 3.3 Protocols The protocols that are defined for IMS are classified into three extensive categories: 1. protocols needed for signaling and session control 2. protocols used in the “media plane” 3. authentication and security protocols 3.3.1 Session Control Protocol A session is an exchange of data in a communication. Many Internet applications need the creation and the management of a session. The protocol which is dedicated to the session control in IMS is SIP [§ 3.4]. 3.3.2 Media Plane Protocol IMS employs RTP (Real Time Protocol) and RTCP (Real Time Control Protocol, which provides statistics and information about the media stream) for delivering multimedia contents. Multimedia contents can be transported through an IP network, so it is possible for packets to accumulate delays. Due to this, packets may arrive at the destination late or out of sequence because of the IP network jitter. RTP timestamps are put inside the packets to allow the receiver to get the correct content. All the packets are also numbered in order to verify those that were misplaced during the transmission. If the number of lost packets increases considerably, we can choose different codes for improving the quality of service. RTCP gives statistics about QoS and permits synchronization among the media. One of the most important features of RTCP is that it establishes an association between the RTP timestamps and the reference clock. So, is possible to achieve synchronization among the media. The synchronization is of vital importance in applications like video conferences. 3.3.3 Security and Authentication Protocol In the IMS architecture there are three interfaces where authentication functions are performed. The authentication protocol used within this interfaces is DIAMETER. It 105 Core Network Description works over safe protocols as TCP and STCP and is an evolution of the previous RADIUS protocol. 3.4 SIP Protocol SIP (Session Initiation Protocol) is a signaling and control protocol on the application layer. This protocol needs a transport network to be IP based. SIP guarantees establishing, changing and ending communication sessions. Sessions can be single or multi user, regardless of the session communication type. Furthermore, SIP allows the achievement of a complete integration between data and voice in real-time communication, regardless of the device type. SIP is also independent from the transport layer, so the transport protocol can be UDP, TCP or STCP. Because of this, SIP has got its own dependability and protection mechanism. SIP signaling messages are similar to the HTTP ones, so we can say that SIP is a textual protocol. In summary, SIP is distinguished by these main features: • Based on the Client/Server model: every transaction is originated from a node of the network able to act as client and it is directed to another entity that involves from server; • Simple: signaling is composed by a sequence of textual message (header and body); • Internet-oriented: it provides a complete integration with all the Internet open standards like HTTP, URI (Uniform Resource Indicators), DNS (Domain Name System) and MIME (Multipurpose Internet Mail Extension); • Terminal-based: user terminals have the complete control of the session (or of the call), while in the telephonic network (circuit-switched) the control is decentralized; • Text-based: the protocol is managed through text-based messages, so it allows the adaptation the different situations; • Based on a Request/Response model: every transaction consists of a request and one or more answers (provisional or final). 106 Core Network Description 3.4.1 SIP functionality As said before, the main goal of SIP is to deliver a session description to a user at their current location. Once the user has been located and the initial session description delivered, SIP can deliver new descriptions to modify the characteristics of the outgoing sessions and terminate the session whenever the user wants. A session description is, as its name indicates, a description of the session to be established. It contains enough information for the remote user to join the session. In multimedia sessions over the Internet this information includes the IP address and port number where the media needs to be sent and the codes used to encode the voice and the images of the participants. In addition, in order to establish and close multimedia communication, the SIP protocol supports five fundamental functions: • User location: it determinates which terminal system we have to use for the multimedia communication, • User Availability: it determinates if a part wants to be involved in the communication, • User Capability: it determinates which kind of the media are involved in the communication and its descriptive parameters, • Session Set Up: it establishes the session, both on the originating and terminating side, • Session Management: session management foresees the changing of the parameters of a session in course, the invocation of services on behalf of the user and the closing of the session. Finally, we have to consider that SIP is a layered protocol, that is, each functionality is realized like independent elaboration stages. SIP is used combined with other protocols: 1. RSTVP (Resource Reservation Protocol), it reserves network resources 2. RTP (Real Time Protocol) and RTCP (real Time Transfer Control Protocol), they transport data in real time and provide QoS using feedback 3. RTSP (Real Time Streaming Protocol), it controls the media flow transmission 4. SAP (Session Announcement Protocol), it delivers multicast communication 107 Core Network Description 5. SDP (Session Description Protocol), it describes multimedia session 3.4.2 SIP Entities A SIP network is composed of five types of logical SIP entities. Each entity has specific functions and participates in SIP communication as a client (initiates requests), as a server (responds to requests), or as both. One physical device can have the functionality of more than one logical SIP entity. The logical SIP entities are: • User Agent (UA): it is an endpoint entity which initiates and terminates sessions by exchanging requests and responses. UA is defined as an application which contains both a User Agent Client (UAC, a client application that initiates SIP requests) and a User Agent Server (UAS, is a server application that contacts the user when a SIP request is received and that returns a response on behalf of the user. During a session these entities can dynamically interchange their roles while preserving them during a transaction. • Proxy Server: it is an intermediary entity that acts as both a server and a client, for the purpose of making requests on behalf of other clients. Requests are serviced either internally or by passing them on, possibly after translation, to other servers. A Proxy interprets, and, if necessary, rewrites a request message before forwarding it. Proxy Servers can be Stateless (logical entity which does not keep memory of the transaction) or Stateful (proxy which keeps the record of the transaction). • Redirected Server: it is a server that accepts a SIP request, maps the SIP address of the called party into zero (if there is no known address) or more new addresses and returns them to the client. Unlike Proxy servers, Redirect Servers do not pass the request onto other servers. It uses the Location service. • Registrar: it is a server that accepts REGISTER requests for the purpose of updating a location database with the contact information of the user specified in the request. 108 Core Network Description • B2BUA (Back-to-Back User Agent): it is a logical entity that receives a request, processes it as a User Agent Server (UAS) and, in order to determine how the request should be answered, acts as a User Agent Client (UAC) and generates requests. A B2BUA must maintain call state and actively participate in sending requests and responses for dialogs in which it is involved. The B2BUA has tighter control of the call than a Proxy. For example, a Proxy cannot disconnect a call or alter the messages. 3.4.3 Messages SIP is based on HTTP and, so, is a textual request-response protocol. There are two types of SIP messages: • Requests: they are sent from the client to the server. They contain a Request Line, a Header, and a Message Body. • Responses: they are sent from the server to the client. They contain a Status Line, a Header, and a Message Body. In general, SIP messages are composed of three parts: Start line, Headers and Message Body. 3.4.3.1 Start Line Every SIP message begins with a Start Line. The Start Line conveys the message type (method type in requests, and response code in responses) and the protocol version. Table 10 shows the methods that are currently defined in SIP and their meaning. The Start Line may be either a Request-line (requests) or a Status-line (responses), as follows: • The Request-line includes a Request-URI, which indicates the user or service to which this request is being addressed. • The Status-line holds the numeric Status-code and its associated textual phrase. 109 Core Network Description Table 10: SIP Methods Method name Meaning ACK Acknowledges the establishment of a session BYE Terminates a session CANCEL Cancels a pending request INFO Transports PSTN telephony signaling INVITE Establishes a session NOTIFY Notifies the user agent about a particular event OPTIONS Queries a server about its capabilities PRACK Acknowledges the reception of a provisional response PUBLISH Uploads information to a server REGISTER Maps a public URI with the current location of the user SUBSCRIBE Requests to be notified about a particular event UPDATE Modifies some characteristics of a session MESSAGE Carries an instant message REFER Instructs a server to send a request 3.4.3.2 Headers SIP header fields convey message attributes that provide additional information about the message. They are similar in syntax and semantics to HTTP header fields (in fact, some headers are borrowed from HTTP) and thus always take the format: <name>:<value>. Headers can span multiple lines. Some SIP headers such as Via, Contact, Route and Record-Route can appear multiple times in a message or, alternatively, can take multiple comma-separated values in a single header occurrence. 3.4.3.3 Message Body A message body is used to describe the session to be initiated (for example, in a multimedia session this may include audio and video codec types and sampling rates), or alternatively it may be used to contain opaque textual or binary data of any type which relates in some way to the session. Message bodies can appear both in request and in response messages. SIP makes a clear distinction between signaling information, conveyed in the SIP Start Line and headers, and the session description information, which is outside the scope of SIP. 110 Core Network Description Possible body types include: • SDP (Session Description Protocol) • Multipurpose Internet Mail Extensions (MIME) • Others, to be defined in the IETF and in specific implementations. 3.4.4 Management of a SIP session 3.4.4.1 Session Establishment and Termination Figure 34 shows the interaction between two user agents during trivial session establishment and termination. FIGURE 34: SIP SESSION ESTABLISHMENT AND CALL TERMINATION The call flow describing the session establishment shown in the figure is explained next: 1. UA1 sends an INVITE message to Bob’s SIP address: sip:[email protected]. This message also contains an SDP packet describing the media capabilities of the calling terminal. 2. UA2 receives the request and immediately responds with a 100-Trying response message. 111 Core Network Description 3. UA2 starts “ringing” to inform Bob of the new call. Simultaneously a 180 (Ringing) message is sent to the UAC. 4. UA2 sends a 182 (Queued) call status message to report that the call is behind two other calls in the queue. 5. UA2 sends a 182 (Queued) call status message to report that the call is behind one other call in the queue. 6. Bob picks up the call and the UA2 sends a 200 (OK) message to the calling UA. This message also contains an SDP packet describing the media capabilities of Bob’s terminal. 7. UA1 sends an ACK request to confirm the 200 (OK) response was received. Thus, the session termination call flow proceeds as follows: 1. The caller decides to end the call and “hangs-up”. This results in a BYE request being sent to UA2. 2. UA2 responds with 200 (OK) message and notifies Bob that the conversation has ended. 3.4.4.2 Call Redirection Figure 35 shows a simple call redirection scenario. FIGURE 35: SIMPLE CALL REDIRECTION USING A REDIRECT SERVER 112 Core Network Description The call redirection call flow is: 1. First a SIP INVITE message is sent to [email protected], but finds the Redirect server sip.acme.com along the signaling path. 2. The Redirect server looks up Bob’s current location in a Location Service using a non-SIP protocol (for example, LDAP). 3. The Location Service returns Bob’s current location: SIP address [email protected]. 4. The Redirect Server returns this information to the calling UA using a 302 (Moved Temporarily) response. In the response message it enters a contact header and sets the value to Bob’s current location, [email protected]. 5. The calling UA acknowledges the response by sending an ACK message. 6. The calling UAC then continues by sending a new INVITE directly to gw.telco.com. 7. gw.telco.com is able to notify Bob’s terminal of the call and Bob “picks up” the call. A 200 (OK) response is sent back to the calling UA. 8. The calling UA acknowledges with an ACK message. 3.4.4.3 Call Proxing Figure 36 shows call set-up between two User Agents with the assistance of an intermediate Proxy server. The call flow is the following: 1. An INVITE message is sent to bob@ acme.com, but finds the Proxy server sip.acme.com along the signaling path. 2. The Proxy server immediately responds with a 100 (Trying) provisional response. 3. The Proxy server looks-up Bob’s current location in a Location Service using a non-SIP protocol (For example, LDAP). 4. The Location Service returns Bob’s current location: SIP address [email protected]. 5. The Proxy server decides to Proxy the call and creates a new INVITE transaction based on the original INVITE message, but with the Request-URI in the start line changed to [email protected]. The Proxy server sends this request to the UA2. 113 Core Network Description 6. The UA2 responds first with a 100 (Trying). 7. The UA2 responds with a 180 (Ringing) response. 8. The Proxy server forwards the 180 (Ringing) response back to the UA1. 9. When the call is accepted by the user (for example, by picking up the handset) UA2 sends a 200 (OK) response. In this example, UA2 inserts a Contact header into the response with the value [email protected]. Further SIP communication will be sent directly to it and not via the Proxy server. 10. The Proxy forwards the 200 (OK) response back to the calling UAC. 11. The calling UA sends an ACK directly to UA2 at the lab (according to the Contact header it found in the 200 (OK) response). FIGURE 36: CALL PROXING SCENARIO 114 Core Network Description 3.5 IPv6 IMS uses IPv6, which is a new version of IP that is designed to be an evolutionary step from IPv4. It is a natural increment to IPv4. It was created to answer to some problem of the actual standard like the followings: • The growth of the Internet may cause exhaustion of the IPv4 address space • The need for simpler configuration • The requirement for security at the IP level • The need to control the Quality of Service (QoS) To solve this question IPv6 introduces: • New Header Format • Larger Address Space • Efficient and Hierarchical Addressing and Routing Infrastructure • Stateless and Stateful Address Configuration • Built-in Security • Better Support for QoS • New Protocol for Neighboring Node Interaction • Extensibility 3.5.1 A new IP standard 3.5.1.1 A New Header The new header format of IPv6 is in place to minimize the header overhead. This is achieved by removing non-essential fields and optional fields and putting them in the extension headers that are placed after the IPv6 header. This technique also simplifies the router’s work. The IPv4 header is 24 bytes large, 8 used for addresses and 16 for twelve additional fields. The new IPv6 header is 40 bytes large, 32 used for the addresses and 8 for 6 additional fields. The header structure is shown in Figure 37, as we can see some fields are missing: Extension Header capacities are used to provide these lost functions. In this way the great part of the packets can go quickly through the network and just packets having particular requests receive a different treatment by analyzing the extension header. 115 Core Network Description A lot of the extension headers require an end-to-end functionality so they don’t need intermediate router elaboration. Figure 37: IPv6 header The IPv6 header fields are: • Version (4 bits): This field simply identifies the IP version number. • Traffic class (8 bits): It looks like TOS in IPv4. It allows traffic differentiation: • - (0-7) traffic with congestion control (like TCP), - (8-15) traffic without congestion control. Flow label (20 bits): It allows the routers to recognize the packets that belong to the same data flow. With flow we mean a sequence of packets that need the same processing by the network. This field is useful for the QoS management. Because the traffic is identified in the IPv6 header, support for QoS can be achieved even when the packet payload is encrypted through IPsec. • Payload length (16 bits): This is an unsigned integer that specifies the length of the payload measured in bytes. The payload can be up to 64k in size in standard mode, or larger with a "jumbo payload" option (payload==0). • Next header (8 bits): The optional information are placed in separated headers that are put between IPv6 header and the upper level’s header. IPv6 can 116 Core Network Description easily be extended for new features by adding extension headers after the IPv6 header. Unlike options in the IPv4 header, which can only support 40 bytes of options, the size of IPv6 extension headers is only constrained by the size of the IPv6 packet. Some possible value are the following: - 0: Hop-by-Hop Option Header - 44: Fragment Header - 50: Encapsulation Security Payload (IPsec) - 51: Authentication Header (IPsec) - 60: Destination Header - 135: Mobility Header - 59: No text Header As we can see, IPv6 supports IPsec. This provides a standards-based solution for network security needs and promotes interoperability between different IPv6 implementations. • Hop limit (8 bits): The field is decreased any time the packet crosses a router. It has the same role of the IPv4 time to live • Both source and destination addresses (128 bits each): see below From IPv4’s header are removed: • Checksum: The error check is assigned to the upper levels • Fragment offset: The fragment management in assigned to optional headers. Only the sender host can fragment the packets. 3.5.1.2 Addressing IPv6 has 128-bit (16-byte) source and destination IP addresses. IPv4 provides 232≈4,3*109 addresses and considering that the number of people is 7*109 we understand that a larger address space is needful. With IPv6 we can use 2128≈3,4*1038, they say that with IPv6 every grain of sand will have an IP address. This great number of addresses is useful to exploit the hierarchical organization. The IPv4 address penury has forced to use NAT (Network Address Translator) to map a number of private addresses to a single public one. This affects the network’s security level and hinders the diffusion of client-service applications. The IPv6 117 Core Network Description address syntax requires eight blocks of four hexadecimal numbers (each one made of four bits). It allows autoconfiguration (plug and play). Usually IPv6 has a 64 bit subnet prefix. There are address subspaces allocated to Unicast and Multicast addresses. It also introduces the concept of anycast (the closer node) useful for the mobility communications. It is syntactically indistinguishable from the Unicast address. 3.5.1.2.1 Unicast Addresses It is a single interface identifier. A packet sent to a unicast address is consigned to the interface identified by this address. There are different unicast addresses classified by the scope: • Link-Local address: It is visible only in the site. It is automatically configured by the MAC address (EUI-64 standard) • Site-Local address: It is visible only in the link. • Aggregatable Global Unicast Address: It is a public address so it is visible in the entire network. They are hierarchically organized to facilitate the address aggregation. There also some special use unicast addresses: • Unspecified Address: (0:0:0:0:0:0:0:0) It is not allocated to a node but represents a virtual interface. It means the absence of address. It is useful during the address negotiation. • Loopback Address: (0:0:0:0:0:0:0:1) It is used by a node that sends an IPv6 packet to himself. It is useful for diagnostic purposes. It can’t be allocated to a node but represents a node’s virtual interface. • IPv6 Address with Embedded IPv4 Address: It is an IPv6 address that hides an IPv4 address. There are two type of IPv6 addresses that hide an IPv4 address: - IPv4-compatible IPv6 address: It is assigned to a host that has a double stack (IPv4 and IPv6). It is used during the transition and allows the creation of an automatic tunnel IPv6 on IPv4. - IPv4-mapped IP6 address: It is used to communicate with only IPv4 address nodes that don’t support IPv6 address. 118 Core Network Description 3.5.1.2.2 Anycast Addresses It is a set of interface identifiers belonging to different nodes. A packet sent to an anycast address is consigned to one of these interfaces, typically the closest one. It is syntactically indistinguishable from the Unicast address. The node that has an anycast address knows his nature (upper layers). It is useful to identify a set of routers that provide the same service. • A router can’t uses can anycast address like source address • Only a router can have an anycast address so it can not be assigned to a host. 3.5.1.2.3 Multicast Address It is a set of interface identifiers belonging to different nodes. A packet sent to a multicast address is consigned to all these interfaces. A node can belonging to more than one multicast group. It can have a different scope (link, site, global...). • Multicast addresses can’t be used like source addresses • They can’t appear in routing protocol headers 3.5.1.3 Mobile in IPv6 Terminal mobility in the next future will reach the same proportions as mobile telephone ones. We can distinguish between terminal portability and mobility. In the first case the user can connect himself from different access points but doesn’t need to remain connected during the movement. This is possible also with IPv4 standard but the terminal needs a different IP address every time and the configuration procedure may be quite complex. It is simplified with the IPv6 autoconfiguration procedure. The mobility ensures the communication during the terminal movement. The mobile node needs a different IP address every time it arrives at a new link, but this doesn’t assure the transport level connection because by modifying the address the TCP session may fall down. To assure the communication, a different protocol is useful. A host needs more than one address, in base to the visited network: It needs the following addresses: • a “permanent address” independent of the access point, 119 Core Network Description • a “variable address” to assure the achievement anytime, independently from the visited network. The permanent address, called home address, is a static address, registered in the DNS home network and so globally reachable from Internet. When the terminal connects to a network different from the home one (foreign network) it earns a new address called care-of-address. The mobility matter can be solved by managing the appropriate use of the home address or the care-of-address one, according to the context. A home network router, called home agent, acts for the mobile host connected to a foreign network. It will send the messages to the mobile host by using a memory called binding cache in which it maintains the association between the home address and the care-of-address. Every time the host changes network it earns a new care-of-address called primary care-of-address and communicates it to the home agent by a Binding Update message. The Binding Update message is also sent to nodes that have communicated with the mobile host. All the addresses receiving the Binding Update message are stored in a structure created by the mobile terminal called Binding Update List. Previous care-of-addresses are maintained to allow the host to receive packets sent to the old care-of-address. The care-of-address and home address link is called binding. Figure 38 shows a possible IPv6 mobile situation. There are three possible situations: 1. Mobile node is connected to the home network: the packets are routed to the home network default gateway 2. Mobile node is connected to a foreign network: The packets are sent to the home agent who knows the mobile host primary care-of-address thanks to the Binding Update messages and the binding cache. The home agent will send the messages to the mobile terminal by tunnel. When the message reaches the mobile terminal it learns the sender address and sends it a Binding Update. The sender learns the new primary care-of-address and associates it to the mobile terminal home address in the Binding Cache; in this way it will send the messages directly to the primary care-of-address. 3. Mobile node isn’t connected to any network. Home network default gateway sends a message to the sender to notify the mobile host that it is not achievable. 120 Core Network Description Figure 38: IPv6 mobile 3.5.2 Differences between IPv4 and IPv6 In conclusion some of the key differences between IPv4 and IPv6 are highlighted: • Source and destination addresses are 128 bits (16 bytes) in length. • IPsec support is required. • Packet flow identification for QoS handling by routers is included in the IPv6 header using the Flow Label field. • Fragmentation is not done by routers, only by the sending host. • Header does not include a checksum. • All optional data is moved to IPv6 extension headers. • ARP Request frames are replaced with multicast Neighbor Solicitation messages. • IGMP is replaced with Multicast Listener Discovery (MLD) messages. • ICMP Router Discovery is replaced with ICMPv6 Router Solicitation and Router Advertisement messages and is required. 121 The Edge Network Proposal CHAPTER FOUR 4. EDGE NETWORK PROPOSAL FOR UMTS, WiMAX AND DVB-H, AND CONVERGENT ARCHITECTURE 4.1 Introduction A convergent architecture between WiMAX, DVB-H and UMTS is the scope of this thesis. In order to do this, in the Chapter two I have defined a unique architectural block model for the different Access Networks, grouping common logical functionalities. As the analysis in the Chapter three has shown, IMS is the best choice for the Core Network of a convergent architecture because it allows the convergence between different technologies. The IMS is based on the SIP protocol for control signaling, and on other standardized IETF protocols (like RTP in case of VoIP) for user application traffic. It is an access independent platform providing services in a standardized way. So, in this section the way to connect each different Access Network to IMS Core Network will be studied. Since there is a gap between the Access Network and the Core Network, an Edge Network filling this gap is needed. According to this point of view, the Edge Network could be considered as an extension of the Core Network. In Figure 39 is shown a logical representation of the Edge Network. 122 The Edge Network Proposal Figure 39: Schematic Representation of a Network In the next paragraph I am going to explain the reasons of why the Edge Network is required for each access technology. Moreover, I am going to describe which features the Edge Network must provide to allow the connection between any Access Network and the IMS Core Network. As the Access Networks taken into consideration are UMTS Release 6, Mobile WiMAX and DVB-H, the Edge Network devices refer only to these three technologies [§ 4.3-4.6]. Finally, I am going to expose the way the Edge Network allows a complete convergent network architecture clarifying all the stages it goes through. The resulting proposal is a whole integrated network where the different access technologies are not separated. 4.2 What is the Edge Network? The Access Networks analyzed previous [Chapter 2] can not be connected directly to the IMS Core Network. This issue is caused because every technology has different requirements. In particular, regarding to the IMS features the major problems are that DVB-H is broadcast and it does not provide session establishing. IMS is based on the SIP protocol for signaling and consequently it is based on a Client/Server model. This means that every transaction is originated from a node of the network able to act as client and it is directed to another entity that involves from server. These conditions can not be achieved in a broadcast network. 123 The Edge Network Proposal Furthermore, UMTS Access Network elements do not communicate by IP but by ATM protocol. In the UMTS Release 6 the interaction with the IMS is standardized but the UTRAN is still not IP-based. Finally, SIP protocol is not mandatory for WiMAX standard, even though it is all-IP. The integration between WiMAX and IMS is supposed to be possible, but it is not standardized yet. So, assuming the Access Network represented as the unique architectural access model described in the section 2.6, the difficulties are mainly concentrated on the Decision&Control Module and IMS link. It is shown in Figure 40. Figure 40: Connection Failure Keeping in mind which are the main Decision&Control Module functionalities (all the functions in the Access Network management), in this case it is important to underline that it is responsible for the interface to the Core Network. The physical devices included in this module are the UMTS RNC, the WiMAX ASN-GW and the DVB-H IP-Encapsulator. For the reasons listed above, there is a ‘connection failure’ between these entities and the first point of contact in the IMS (that is the P-CSCF in the signaling plane). Thus, some additional elements need to be considered to allow the connection between the Access Networks and Core Network. This set of elements is called Edge Network in my proposal. The Edge Network links the Decision&Control Module of the Access Network to the IMS Core Network, as it is illustrated in the Figure 41. 124 The Edge Network Proposal Figure 41: The Introduction of the Edge Network The main features that an Edge Network must provide are related to the connectivity of different access network to IMS Core Network. The SIP protocol is mandatory for IMS then the Edge Network uses SIP protocol to allow establishing sessions. Furthermore, the Core Network is All-IP and the Edge Network has to ‘translate’ the transfer mode wherever the IP protocol is not used. Therefore the Edge Network is responsible of IP addresses management. Finally, it holds DataBases and servers for AAA. It also holds the media resources for the DVB-H network. The different technologies of the access networks and the devices needed to the core network connection will be presented in the next paragraphs. The Access and Edge Network protocol stacks together with the Core Network boundary devices ones have been object of my study. In fact the way of connecting the Access and IMS Core Networks has been deeply influenced by the protocol analysis. As the interaction between IMS and the Access Networks is not standardized yet, the protocol analysis has been helpful to define some interconnecting devices. For each device will be highlighted the most important protocols, and the analysis will be concluded once the protocol stacks reaches the common neighbouring device layer. Consequently, it is possible to identify the type of header that each element has to analyze or to add to the packet that it receives. 125 The Edge Network Proposal 4.3 The Edge Network for UMTS Release 6 (PS Domain) Figure 42: Edge Network in UMTS With the ever increasing penetration of IP technologies and the tremendous growth in wireless data traffic, the wireless industry is evolving the mobile Core Networks towards all IP technology. The 3rd Generation Partnership Project (3GPP) is specifying an IP Multimedia Sub-system (IMS) in UMTS Release 6, which is adjunct to the UMTS Packet Switched (PS) GPRS CN. This IP-based network will allow mobile operators to provide commonly used Internet applications to wireless user. The UMTS IMS uses the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) defined text-based Session Initiation Protocol (SIP), to control a wide range of anticipated IP-based services offering new services such as multimedia calls, chat, presence services. Hence, due to the fact that I want to reach one Core Network independent of the kind of Access Network the UMTS PS domain is moved out the Core Network. In this way, the PS domain is placed in the Edge Network and it allows the UTRAN to be connected to the only IMS Core Network. It can be seen in Figure 42. Indeed, the UMTS PS domain (or GPRS) Support Nodes (GSN) are the Gateway GSN (GGSN) and the Serving GSN (SGSN). They constitute the interface between the Radio System and the Fixed Networks for packet switched services (IMS). The GSN performs all necessary functions in order to handle the packet transmission to and from the mobile stations. Thus, the PS domain refers to the set of all the CN entities offering “PS type of connection” for user traffic as well as the entities supporting the related signaling. A “PS type of connection” transports the user information using autonomous 126 The Edge Network Proposal concatenation of bits called packets: each packet can be routed independently from the previous one. While the IM subsystem (IMS) comprises all the CN elements for provision of IP multimedia services comprising audio, video, text, chat, etc. and a combination of them delivered over the PS-Domain. In the PS domain is performed the Location Register. The Location Register is a function that stores information regarding where the mobile station is located. This is the function that enables communication to a mobile station. The Location Register is handled by four different entities: • HLR • VLR • SGSN • GGSN 4.3.1 Serving GPRS Support Node (SGSN) This node coordinates: • virtual channels (PDP Context) establishing / closing • virtual channel maintenance It manages: • user traffic • user mobility SGSN also performs the functionalities related to security. UMTS cells are grouped in Routing Areas, which are contained in Location Areas. When a mobile that is registered in a SGSN moves from one Routing Area to another, it informs the SGSN in order to update its location. Thus, the location register function in the SGSN stores two types of subscriber data needed to handle originating and terminating packet data transfer (in order to manage user mobility and traffic): • Subscription Information - The IMSI - One or more temporary identities 127 The Edge Network Proposal - Zero or more IP addresses (or PDP addresses) • Location Information - The cell or the routing area where the MS is registered, depending on the operating mode and state of the MS - The VLR number of the associated VLR (if the Gs interface to the MSC/VLR in the CS-Domain is implemented) - The GGSN address of each GGSN for which an IP virtual channel ism active (an active PDP context exists). 4.3.2 Gateway GPRS Support Node (GGSN) The GGSN is the node that interfaces the external PS-Domain networks, as Internet, and IMS. When a mobile wants to transfer some packet data, it asks to the SGSN to establish a PDP Context. The SGSN, together with the GGSN, creates a virtual channel which connects the UE to the desired network. The GGSN is the gateway which gives the access to the external network. So the GGSN stores user data needed to manage the user traffic. The location register function in the GGSN stores subscriber data received from the HLR and the SGSN. There are two types of subscriber data needed to handle originating and terminating packet data transfer: • Subscription Information - The IMSI - Zero or more IP addresses (PDP addresses) • Location Information - The SGSN address for the SGSN where the MS is registered 4.3.3 Data Bases 4.3.3.1 Home Subscriber Server (HSS) The HSS is the master database for a given user. It is the entity containing the subscription-related information to support the network entities actually handling calls/sessions. 128 The Edge Network Proposal A Home Network may contain one or several HSSs: it depends on the number of mobile subscribers, on the capacity of the equipment and on the organization of the network. For example, the HSS provides support to the call control servers in order to complete the routing/roaming procedures by solving authentication, authorization, naming/addressing resolution, location dependencies, etc. The HSS is responsible for holding the following user-related information: • User Identification, Numbering and addressing information • User Security information: Network access control information for authentication and authorization • User Location information at inter-system level: the HSS supports the user registration, and stores inter-system location information, etc. • User profile information. The HSS also generates User Security information for mutual authentication, communication integrity check and ciphering. Based on this information, the HSS also is responsible for supporting the call control and session management entities of the different Domains and Subsystems of the operator as shown in Figure 43. HSS Subscription information D MSC Server C GMSC Server Location information Gr SGSN Gc Cx GGSN Rp CSCF GUP Server Figure 43: Example of a Generic HSS structure and basic interfaces 129 The Edge Network Proposal The HSS may integrate heterogeneous information, and enable enhanced features in the core network to be offered to the application & services domain, at the same time hiding the heterogeneity. The HSS consists of the following functionalities: • IP multimedia functionality to provide support to control functions of the IM subsystem such as the CSCF. It is needed to enable subscriber usage of the IM CN subsystem services. This IP multimedia functionality is independent of the access network used to access the IM CN subsystem • The subset of the HLR/AUC functionality required by the PS Domain • The subset of the HLR/AUC functionality required by the CS Domain, if it is desired to enable subscriber access to the CS Domain or to support roaming to legacy GSM/UMTS CS Domain networks The HSS is considered as GUP Data Repository for IM CN Subsystem user related data. The RAF (Repository Access Function) provides the Rp reference point. 4.3.3.2 The Home Location Register (HLR) The HLR can be considered a subset of the HSS that has the following functions: • The function required to provide support to PS Domain entities such as the SGSN and GGSN, through the Gr and Gc interfaces and the 3GPP AAA Server for the I-WLAN through the D'/Gr' interface. It is needed to enable subscriber access to the PS Domain services • The function required to provide support to CS Domain entities such as the MSC/MSC server and GMSC/GMSC server, through the C and D interfaces. It is needed to enable subscriber access to the CS Domain services and to support roaming to legacy GSM/UMTS CS Domain networks. 4.3.3.3 The Authentication Centre (AuC) The AuC can be considered a subset of the HSS that holds the following functionality for the CS Domain and PS Domain: • The AuC is associated with an HLR and stores an identity key for each mobile subscriber registered with the associated HLR. This key is used to generate security data for each mobile subscriber: 130 The Edge Network Proposal - data which are used for mutual authentication of the International Mobile Subscriber Identity (IMSI) and the network - a key used to check the integrity of the communication over the radio path between the mobile station and the network - a key used to cipher communication over the radio path between the mobile station and the network. • The AuC communicates only with its associated HLR over a nonstandardized interface denoted the H-interface. The HLR requests the data needed for authentication and ciphering from the AuC via the H-interface, stores them and delivers them to the VLR and SGSN which need them to perform the security functions for a mobile station. 4.3.3.4 HSS logical functions • Mobility Management: This function supports the user mobility through CS Domain, PS Domain and IM CN subsystem • Call and/or session establishment support: The HSS supports the call and/or session establishment procedures in CS Domain, PS Domain and IM CN subsystem. For terminating traffic, it provides information on which call and/or session control entity currently hosts the user • User security information generation: The HSS generates user authentication, integrity and ciphering data for the CS and PS Domains and for the IM CN subsystem user security support. The HSS supports the authentication procedures to access CS Domain, PS Domain and IM CN subsystem services by storing the generated data for authentication, integrity and ciphering and by providing this data to the appropriate entity in the CN (i.e. MSC/VLR, SGSN, 3GPP AAA Server or CSCF) • User identification handling: The HSS provides the appropriate relations among all the identifiers uniquely determining the user in the system: CS Domain, PS Domain and IM CN subsystem (e.g. IMSI and MSISDNs for CS Domain; IMSI, MSISDNs and IP addresses for PS Domain, private identity and public identities for IM CN subsystem) 131 The Edge Network Proposal • Access authorization: The HSS authorizes the user for mobile access when requested by the MSC/VLR, SGSN, 3GPP AAA Server or CSCF, by checking that the user is allowed to roam to that visited network • Service authorization support: The HSS provides basic authorization for MT call/session establishment and service invocation. Besides that the HSS updates the appropriate serving entities (i.e., MSC/VLR, SGSN, 3GPP AAA Server, CSCF) with the relevant information related to the services to be provided to the user • Service Provisioning Support: The HSS provides access to the service profile data for use within the CS Domain, PS Domain and/or IM CN subsystem. Application Services and CAMEL Services Support • The HSS communicates with the SIP Application Server and the OSA-SCS to support Application Services in the IM CN subsystem. It communicates with the IM-SSF to support the CAMEL Services related to the IM CN subsystem. It communicates with the gsmSCF to support CAMEL Services in the CS Domain and PS Domain. • GUP Data Repository: The HSS supports the storage of IM CN Subsystem user related data, and provides access to these data through the Rp reference point. 4.3.4 The Equipment Identity Register (EIR) The Equipment Identity Register (EIR) in the GSM system is the logical entity which is responsible for storing in the network the International Mobile Equipment Identities (IMEIs), used in the GSM system. The equipment is classified as "white listed", "grey listed", "black listed" or it may be unknown. This functional entity contains one or several databases which store(s) the IMEIs used in the GSM system. The mobile equipment may be classified as "white listed", "grey listed" and "black listed" and therefore may be stored in three separate lists. An IMEI may also be unknown to the EIR. An EIR shall as a minimum contain a "white list" (Equipment classified as "white listed"). 132 The Edge Network Proposal 4.3.5 Interfaces 4.3.5.1 Interface between SGSN and RNS (Iu_PS-interface) The RNS-SGSN interface is used to carry information concerning: • Packet data transmission • Mobility management 4.3.5.2 Interface between SGSN and HLR (Gr-interface) This interface is used to exchange the data related to the location of the mobile station and to the management of the subscriber. The main service provided to the mobile subscriber is the capability to transfer packet data within the whole service area. The SGSN informs the HLR of the location of a mobile station managed by the latter. The HLR sends to the SGSN all the data needed to support the service to the mobile subscriber. Exchanges of data may occur when the mobile subscriber requires a particular service, when he wants to change some data attached to his subscription or when some parameters of the subscription are modified by administrative means. Signaling on this interface uses the Mobile Application Part (MAP), which in turn uses the services of Transaction Capabilities (TCAP). 4.3.5.3 Interface between SGSN and GGSN (Gn- and Gp-interface) These interfaces are used to support mobility between the SGSN and GGSN. The Gn interface is used when GGSN and SGSN are located inside one PLMN. The Gpinterface is used if GGSN and SGSN are located in different PLMNs. The Gn/Gp interface also includes a part which allows SGSNs to communicate subscriber and user data, when changing SGSN. Signaling on this interface uses the User Datagram Protocol, UDP/IP. 4.3.5.4 Signaling Path between GGSN and HLR (Gc-interface) This optional signaling path may be used by the GGSN to retrieve information about the location and supported services for the mobile subscriber, in order to activate a packet data network address. There are two alternative ways to implement this signaling path: • if an SS7 interface is implemented in the GGSN, signaling between the GGSN and the HLR uses the Mobile Application Part (MAP), which in turn uses the services of Transaction Capabilities (TCAP) 133 The Edge Network Proposal • if there is no SS7 interface in the GGSN, any GSN in the same PLMN and which has an SS7 interface installed can be used as a GTP to MAP protocol converter, thus forming a signaling path between the GGSN and the HLR. 4.3.5.5 Interface between SGSN and EIR (Gf-interface) This interface is used between SGSN and EIR to exchange data, in order for the EIR to be able to verify the status of the IMEI retrieved from the Mobile Station. Signaling on this interface uses the Mobile Application Part (MAP), which in turn uses the services of Transaction Capabilities (TCAP). 4.3.6 Protocol Analysis and Definition Figure 44: UMTS’s Device Protocols In UMTS each access network element is a transit node for the UE and the IMS CN. These transit nodes perform all the functionalities of the physical layer and of the data link layer. Figure 44 shows that the transfer mode used by Node B and the RNC is ATM. Because of this, the UTRAN cannot connect directly to the IMS CN but an Edge Network must be taken into consideration. In the Edge Network the transfer mode uses the IP protocol. The SGSN is the first element of the Edge Network and it makes a ‘protocol conversion’. In fact, it has a dual protocol stack: on the access network side it communicates with the RNC by the ATM protocol, while on the 134 The Edge Network Proposal other side it is connected to the GGSN by the Gn interface which supports the UDP protocol (on the transport layer). The GGSN is the gateway to the IMS core network and it establishes a virtual channel (PDP Context) between the UE and the IMS core network. The GGSN supports UDP/TCP on the transport layer and SIP on the application layer (HTTP/FTP are also supported here). All of these interfaces and connections are standardized in the UMTS Release 6. 4.4 The Edge Network for WiMAX WiMAX is a broadband access technology, and so it should have no problems connecting to IMS as DSL or WiFi technology are also both able to connect without problems. Nowadays the WiMAX Network Group (NWG) is still working on the WiMAX architecture, and the way to connect to IMS is an open issue. It is a requirement for the standardized architecture but it is has not yet been defined. WiMAX should be used as transparent IP-bearer connecting the IMS-Client with the IMS-Network. In this context it is reasonable to suppose a Wireless Access Gateway (WAG) in the CSN with SIP protocol on the session layer to interface to the IMS Network. The WAG will also provide Policy Enforcement, which is a functionality implemented to ensure that packets coming from or going to the WLAN Access Network are allowed based on unencrypted data within the packets (e.g. source and destination IP address and port number). So, the Edge Network for the WiMAX can be individuated in the NSP (Network Service Provider) which is implemented by one or more CSN (Connectivity Service Network). This infrastructure is shown in Figure 45. 135 The Edge Network Proposal Figure 45: Edge Network in WiMAX The Network Service Provider (NSP) is a business entity that provides IP connectivity and WiMAX services to WiMAX subscribers consistent with the Service Level Agreement it establishes with WiMAX subscribers. Thus, the IMS may be located in the private network of a network operator (NSP) or at a thirdparty provider. The IMS could be connected directly to the provider’s backbone network, connected via a specific gateway or via the internet. Another element needed in the NSP to enable a Wireless Access Network to connect to the IMS is an AAA Server. 4.4.1 CSN-WAG Connectivity Service Network (CSN) is defined as a set of network functions that provide IP connectivity services to the WiMAX subscriber(s). Thus, a CSN may comprise network elements such as routers, AAA proxy/servers, user databases and Interworking gateway devices. In order to allow the WiMAX Access Network (ASN) to be linked to the IMS Core Network, the device held in the CSN is a WAG. A CSN may provide the following functions: • MS IP address and endpoint parameter allocation for user sessions • IP address management (based on PoA management) • Internet access, Connectivity to Internet, ASP and other PLMN sand Corporate Networks 136 The Edge Network Proposal • AAA proxy or server, User, equipment and services authentication, authorization and accounting (AAA) • Policy and Admission Control based on user subscription profiles • ASN-CSN tunnelling support • WiMAX subscriber billing and inter-operator settlement • Inter-CSN tunnelling for roaming • Location management between ASNs • Inter-ASN mobility and roaming between ASNs • WiMAX services such as location based services, connectivity for peer-topeer services, provisioning • authorization and/or connectivity to IP multimedia services and facilities to support lawful intercept services • Policy & QoS management based on the SLA/contract with the user Interworking gateway devices, such as those compliant with Communications Assistance Law Enforcement Act (CALEA) procedures. 4.4.2 Interfaces The interfaces involved in the Edge Network are called R3 and R5. The R3 is the interface between the ASN and the CSN and it is responsible for supporting AAA, policy enforcement and mobility management capabilities. It also encompasses the bearer plane methods (e.g. tunnelling) to transfer IP data between the ASN and the CSN. On the other side, the R5 interface consists of a set of control plane and bearer plane protocols for interworking between CSNs operated by either the home or visited NSP. Thus, this interface can be considered as the interface between the Edge Network and the IMS Core Network, i.e. between the CSN-WAG and the P-CSCF. 137 The Edge Network Proposal 4.4.3 Protocol Analysis and Definition Figure 46: WiMAX’s Device Protocols Figure 46 shows WiMAX’s device protocol stacks. The user equipment has SIP on the session Layer, this protocol allows the user to establish a session with other users, even when they access the network using different technologies. Between the terminal and the BS the communication is at the Link Layer. The BS manages and controls the MAC Layer, allocating channels (time and bandwidth) to different users. On the other side, the terminal sends some essential information, like the CQI, to the BS. This interface is the one standardized with the 802.16 standard. From this point on, up to the CN the communication is all IP. The different control layers highlighted in Figure 46 show how these devices manage traffic across the network. In order to interface the CSN-WAG to the IMS CN we have decided to use SIP as the session protocol in the WAG. 138 The Edge Network Proposal 4.5 The Edge Network for DVB-H I have already said that DVB-H is a broadcasting technology so, without using another technology to implement a return channel, the DVB-H network is unidirectional. A DVB-H unidirectional network together with another broadband network which provides the return channel is standardized as IP Datacasting (IPDC). IPDC is needed to achieve any interaction with the user. Indeed, IPDC is an end-to-end DVB system for services over mobile terminals comprising both a broadcast path through the DVB-H technology and a bidirectional telecommunication part. This mobile/cellular technology is standardized to be UMTS/GPRS, but I believe that also WiMAX will be taken into account thanks to the convergence towards one Core Network. The IPDC convergence means convergence on transport and applications layer. Instead, my objective is an improved convergent architecture where DVB-H system is able to connect to IMS Core Network. In this way the return channel could not be just the UMTS one but could be chosen dynamically between the best available access technologies. However, there is no standard regarding how to connect a DVB-H network to the IMS. So, my effort was to analyzing how to connect the two networks and how to realize a whole convergent network involving the DVB-H system. Some of the advantages that this convergence would give are the following: • Services synchronization: a synchronization of broadcast services with additional no-broadcast services, which eventually uses interactivity, is possible, i.e. interactive advertisement during a football match. • Presence: it is possible to create presence services related to the broadcast television programs. In this way, it allows the network owners to know who- sees-what. This information is very important for the advertising market and program scheduling (“palinsesto”). • Service reuse: IMS is a horizontal architecture, so it enables the reuse of services created by third parties. • Unique network: allows the user to connect to a unique network and above all with just one service provider. 139 The Edge Network Proposal At the top of what is considered as the DVB-H Access Network, i.e. before the IP Encapsulator, I must suppose a server which I call Content Provider. This Content Provider server is placed into the Edge Network, as Figure 47 can describe. Figure 47: Edge Network in DVB-H This device is the one which interfaces with IMS Core Network. In order to make this integration possible the Content Provider server must hold the SIP protocol on the session layer, because IMS is based on SIP. This protocol allows the Content Provider to establish sessions with other elements of the network. In this way the Content Provider is able to share contents with other servers. This is the reason of why I chose to integrate the server which allows the connection to IMS with the one which stores the multimedia contents to be sent by the broadcast network. It is possible to perform services with the other technologies reusing the same contents sent by the broadcast network i.e. TV on-demand by UMTS or WiMAX. SIP also gives the users (connected to the network via another access network) the possibility to send some kind of content (i.e. SMS, MMS, etc.) to the Content Provider, which will transmit them in broadcast together with the shows. Another advantage of the SIP protocol inside the Content Provider server is that multimedia can be entered just by establishing a session by a remote server. For that reason the Content Provisioning shown in Figure 47 is not mandatory inside the Edge Network. I assume that the Content Provider server is directly connected to the IMS S-CSCF via the ISC interface. This interface is standardized to connect the S-CSCF to a SIP 140 The Edge Network Proposal Application Server or to a third party Application Server. There is not need to connect the Content Provider to the S-CSCF via P-SCSF because it is not a mobile IMS terminal. However, the Content Provider can be seen by the IMS network as a user terminal, i.e. IMS client. It is important to underline that the Content Provider server performs broadcast transmission on the air interface side, it is able to establish sessions (bidirectional transmission) on the other side (towards the Core Network). 4.5.1 Protocol Analysis and Definition The connection of AN DVB-H with the CN IMS was probably the most difficult point in the research of an architecture that permits the convergence between the examined technologies. The difficulty comes from the impossibility to create a session on a Broadcast network. This difficulty was then solved by choosing to establish the sessions between the Content Provider and the other network terminals. Figure 48: DVB-H Protocol Stack Figure 48 shows the typical protocol stack of this technology. On the Application layer the FLUTE (File Delivery over Unidirectional Transport) protocol is to be considered if no return channel is available for the DVB-H system. It is a protocol for the unidirectional delivery of files over the Internet, which is particularly suited to multicast networks. It is based on a mechanism for signaling and mapping the properties of files to concepts of ALC (Asynchronous Layered 141 The Edge Network Proposal Coding) in a way that allows receivers to assign those parameters for received objects. ALC is a protocol designed for delivery of arbitrary binary objects. It is especially suitable for massively scalable, unidirectional, multicast or broadcast distribution. Figure 49: DVB-H’s Device Protocols MUX and Modulator work at the Data Link layer. The first, MUX, is for multiplexing the different IP streams that come from the IP Encapsulator in a unique Transport Stream and it also adds the SI/PSI and MPE metadata. From this point, the data is no longer managed at the IP level. The second, the Modulator, is for sending TS on-air. The Content Provider is an element of the Edge Network that acts as the interface for the SIP-IMS world and it is the only element that manages data at the Application layer. Therefore, it is the only one that works in the grey level pictured in Figure 48. Figure 49 represents this scenario. As you follow the straight path of information across the broadcast network, the different elements are continually working at a lower layer than the previous device. I would like the highlight the necessity of the SIP Protocol in the application layer of the Content Provider server. This is an indispensable requirement that allows the 142 The Edge Network Proposal connection to the IMS network, which then offers the benefits and possibilities that have already been explained in this section. 4.6 CONVERGENT ARCHITECTURE PROPOSAL All the devices needed to connect the different Access Networks to the IMS Core Network are now identified. I have called the set of these elements the Edge Network. The resulting architecture scheme of the whole convergent network is the one shown in Figure 50. Figure 50: Convergent Architecture Scheme Hence, the introduction of the Edge Network consents to realize a convergent architecture. A convergent architecture is an implementation of technologies aimed to optimize the network architecture in order to transport video, voice and data on a single support. The main feature this architecture must provide is access independency, that is services must be available over different access technologies. So, a user does not have to take care of which kind of terminal has to be used for a specific service. In fact there is one network architecture for accommodating all services. That allows to provide and to require optimized Quality of Service. Such architecture also consents easier interworking with the Internet. 143 The Edge Network Proposal As the IP protocol is the reference point for any kind of network transporting video, voice and data, a convergent architecture is possible assuming an all-IP based network. Thus, in my study I have supposed an all-IP backbone and the motivations are summarized next: • Enables rich communications combining multiple media or services; • New IP-based services, easier & faster service creation and execution; • Smooth evolution from today’s networks and standards: - Cost efficiency, evolution for current solutions; • Openness: both specifications and (distributed) architecture. In order to guarantee one network architecture and access independency with the existent technologies, the Edge Network is needed. It allows to consider one generic Access Network which is composed of more access technologies, i.e. UMTS, WiMAX and DVB-H in this case. Therefore, the Access Network could be any kind of network because the role of the Edge Network is to fill the gap between Access and Core Network linking them together. Figure 51 represents the result of integration between different Access Networks and one Core Network which is my idea of the convergent network. 144 The Edge Network Proposal Figure 51: Convergent Architecture In this figure the Access, Edge and Core Network are highlighted. The Access Network is intended as unique architectural block model [§ 2.6] which physically holds the UMTS UTRAN, WiMAX and DVB-H systems. The Core Network is the basic communications platform IMS which offers easy integration with other IP protocols and applications and seamless service offering over various access networks. Thanks to the IMS features (due to the SIP Protocol), such Convergent Network provides: • Personalized services aware of desired communication capabilities and preferences, • Straightforward integration of voice, images, video and other interactive communications services, • Web like service development approach • Enhanced service inter-working with a client in terminal and a server in network. The Edge Network can be considered as the whole of what is needed to connect the Access Network to the Core Network in order to achieve the convergence. In the Paragraph 4.2 the Edge Network was introduced, explaining what it is meant for and which functionality it must hold. While in the successive paragraphs [§ 4.3-4.5] the 145 The Edge Network Proposal physical elements composing the Edge Network for each technology were described. In Figure 51 is evident that some elements that were in the Edge Network of each technology are now not present in the Edge Network of my idea of convergent architecture. This modification is due to some assessment I have done and it is another step towards the complete convergence. Everything will be explained in the next paragraph which gives details about the Edge Network evolutions. 4.6.1 Edge Network Evolutions The result of my study is a proposal of an Edge Network which can be considered as the key for achieving a fully convergent architecture. This definition passes through various phases and the finally convergence, achieved via Edge Network, is developed. This paragraph is intended to make clear all the stage I have followed to reach the architecture illustrated in this section. The starting point of my work is that, currently, there are three distinct Access Networks standalone. In this environment every access technology needs its own user terminal, as Figure 52 depicts. Anyway, every technology user equipment needs to act as IMS Client but the DVB-H Receiver. In the case of DVB-H system the Content Provider Server is seen as client by the IMS network [§ 4.5]. The main prerogative an IMS Client must hold is the presence of SIP protocol on the application layer. The WiMAX architecture provides unified support of functionality needed in several usage scenarios ranging from fixed, nomadic, portable, simple mobility to fully mobile subscribers. In this thesis the Mobile WiMAX is taken into account so the user terminal is assumed to be a mobile terminal and it is called MS (Mobile Subscriber). Since the WiMAX network acts as the IP-connectivity Access Network to IMS based services for the transport of IMS signaling and bearer traffic, the MS has to run IMS client software to be compatible with IMS at the network side. This requires Gm interface and Um (3GPP2)10 interfaces between WiMAX client and PCSCF, i.e. on the R3/R5 reference point. 10 Gm is the reference point supporting the communication between UE and IMS CN (CSCF), Um is the interface between the Mobile Station and the Base Station 146 The Edge Network Proposal Summing up, the WiMAX network enables wireless users to access all IP Multimedia Subsystem (IMS) based services then WiMAX subscribers are able to establish a WiMAX connection, perform P-CSCF discovery and register to IMS as defined in the IMS registration procedure. UMTS UEs are also able to access IMS services, as access to IMS relies on the presence of either e USIM or an ISIM application in the Universal Integrated Circuit Card inside the terminal. Figure 52: Access Networks Standalone In the first step towards the convergence, the Edge Network is the union of the three Edge Networks introduced for each Access Network. It is just an interface to the Core Network. However, it groups all the physical elements and features needed for the connection to the Core Network by each technology independently. There is not an interaction between each different technology and the whole network is the result of three Access Networks put together. Moreover, some of the functions performed in the Edge Network are the same performed also by other devices in the IMS Core Network. Since this issues causes redundancy information and, above all, no scalability a further effort needs to be made. Thus, the last evolution is a unique network where the Edge Network is composed just by the elements strictly needed for connecting each technology to the Core 147 The Edge Network Proposal Network. In order to optimize the complete convergent network, all the common and duplicated functions are shifted into the Core Network. The convergent architecture derived from my considerations is the one in Figure 53. Figure 53: Convergent Architecture Some elements that were in the Edge Network of each technology are not present in the Edge Network of this model of convergent architecture. That is because I have moved the functionalities those elements perform toward other devices, when I have found some correspondence between the functions in the Edge Network and the ones in the IMS network. For example, the HLR in UMTS is a database which stores a subset of information stored in the HSS within the IMS. So, the same user information is duplicated and redundant. All the functionalities related to the Location Register can be centralized into the Core Network, as the IMS devices can offer them. In addition, the AAA services needed in the WiMAX connection are performed also by the S-CSCF. I have also centralized the AAA functionalities performed by WiMAX or UMTS servers and databases dedicated for the same purpose. These functionalities are performed by IMS CSCF devices which use Core Network databases. At last, I have chosen to do not put DVB-H content provisioning inside the Edge Network, it could be in a remote location and it could load contents by establishing a peer-to-peer SIP session. 148 The Edge Network Proposal Hence, I have decided to centralize some Edge Network functionalities inside the IMS Core Network in order to achieve a convergent architecture. In this way, the Edge Network results to be the bridge between the Access Networks and the Core Network but not only. Its importance grows up thanks to the fact that it allows a complete integration between different Access Networks. Similar functions performed by different technologies (although performed in different ways) are supposed to be joint together. This means that an interaction between various elements inside the Edge Network is possible. It follows that the whole network can be considered as one. Something very important to be taken into account is that the convergent architecture considered up to now is simple to realize because it holds all the physical and functional elements currently present, although devices composing the Edge Network must satisfy some mandatory requirements not needed before now, regarding each technology. On the contrary, the new opportunity and possible services introduced by such an architecture are highly developed. All the functions already existing are able to be combined, due to the Edge Network. A vertical handover between different technologies can be performed in order to dynamically choose the best access technology with the respect of the service requirements (QoS, required bandwidth, coverage area, etc...). For example, the network can switch the transmission over either UMTS UTRAN or WiMAX Access Network depending on which kind of service is to be offered. The same consideration can be done about the User Equipment. Such a network can be accessed by a unique user terminal regardless of the access technology used. This User Equipment needs to hold an interchanging radio access interface which is able to choose either an access mode or another. So the user does not have to care about which technology is needed to be able to get a specific service. A requirement the User Equipment must meet is the SIP protocol on the application layer of its protocol stack. SIP allows session establishing between users, most of all between users and Content Provider server [Appendix A]. Moreover, a user can access using various kind of terminals and be identified by his own IP address regardless the kind of terminal. Thanks to the IMS service presence, the network is able to understand which terminal he is using, then how much bandwidth is allocable and which bit rate can be reached. Everything is possible 149 The Edge Network Proposal because the HSS data bases are centralized and the user information are the same for each devices of every technology. Some significant functions, like Security, are performed by both Edge Network and Core Network elements. However, in such case this redundant functionality is not a bother but a further way to make the system more efficient and robust than the earlier one. The idea of separate the network into more sections (Access Network, Edge Network and Core Network) allows a modularization of some functionalities management. To better understand this assertion, one can think of a protocol stack: each layer is dedicated to perform some specific functions and it adds other functionalities to the underlying one. So, concerning the Handover function: • it can be performed by the Access Network on a physical level, • an Handover between different technologies can be considered inside the Edge Network, • it can be provided by the one Core Network on a user level. All these consideration about a developing Edge Network are the basis for an improved convergent architecture which is supposed to be reached in the future. In fact, it is assumed that similar management policies for the same functions performed by different technologies (which work in quite different ways by now) will be accomplished in the upcoming time. This will enable to integrate various devices in the Edge Network maintaining one element for different technologies. 4.6.2 Conclusions In conclusion, it is important to say that a convergent architecture is to be considered as a development existing networks instead of their revolution. The elements composing this architecture are the same components as before with improved features and additional functions, both multiprotocol and multilayer. The implementation of multiprotocol equipments enables to access to different technologies. As a system oriented to the convergence needs a careful valuation of the existing infrastructures and of the objective to be satisfied, my thesis was aimed to this. So, 150 The Edge Network Proposal the result of my effort is a Convergent Architecture proposal which takes the following advantages: • Integrated and synchronized services are possible: the integration between broadcast and multicast services is improved as soon as possible; • All the functions in common between these three different access technologies (UMTS, WiMAX and DVB-H) are centralized: the Access Network can be considered as one; • In the Edge Network are performed just the functionalities related to the need of connecting different Access Networks: the whole network can develops with the introduction of new access technologies without changing anything (Scalability); • User profiling is allowed because all the Data Bases are centralized in the HSS. In order to validate what I have described in this chapter and what is my end result, the subsequent points have been analyzed: • Feasibility: the whole system cost is limited because the implementation does not occur ex novo, but the existing equipments are expanded. • Flexibility: the whole system can be amplified and adapted introducing new upcoming access technologies without changing the existing architecture. The only portion of the network to be modified is the Edge Network. • Dependability: this network is able to provide required services continuously due to the centralized Core Network. • Robustness: critical situations can be supported without failure, in such cases as traffic increasing, insufficient bandwidth, power lower than a bound in a coverage area, etc another access technology can be used. • Maintenance: simple configuration, monitoring and statistics of the system by software from a remote place because the whole architecture is interconnected. • Usability: a user can log on and utilize any service simply and without knowing which technology is used 151 The Edge Network Proposal Finally, one of the main issues this kind of convergent architecture introduces is about Security. As said in the previous paragraph, such convergence makes the entire system more robust because this feature is performed by different sections of the network regarding different aspects. Moreover there are centralized AAA server and HSS. However, it is difficult to ensure protection of information and to save from not authorized accesses to services because users can establish sessions between other users and escape somehow authorization or identification. This problem is an open issue and it must be taken into account. 152 APPENDIX A: Implementation APPENDIX A: Implementation A.1 Introduction The resulting proposal of this thesis is a convergent architecture allowed by the definition of an Edge Network. The benefits the introduction of the Edge Network gives are explained in Chapter four. Now I want to present how this convergent architecture can be implemented. In order to achieve this, a short definition of an example of a convergent service is illustrated. Then the way this service is possible thanks to the architecture is proved. The devices involved during the interactive service are described. The role of the DVB-H Content Provider is especially underlined because it is most improved innovation. In fact, it is one of the fundamental devices for the Edge Network and it needs to hold some functionality that it does not perform currently. A.2 Case Pilot of a Convergent Service: m-Advertising Game The m-Advertising Game is an interactive, realistic advertisement that allows the user to play a “choose your own adventure”-style advertisement inside broadcast programming over the mobile phone. From the user’s perspective, he or she first has the option to choose a personalized “virtual reality”-type character that can play inside the advertisement. Programs for creating these characters are already available, as can be seen from Figure 54, which is taken from the clothing store H&M’s website. Figure 54: m-Advertising Game 153 APPENDIX A: Implementation This makes the service highly personalized, which is one of the main customer demands when it comes to next generation services—especially for the defined “Speen Generation”11 target. The advertisement appears as a normal break in traditional m-broadcast television program. The user has the choice to watch a traditional (non-interactive) advertisement, or participate in the new advertising service. Both advertisements, regardless of which the user chooses, are made with the audience in mind. That is, if someone is watching a program on home decoration, the appropriate advertisements that fit those watchers will be displayed, and if the program is a Formula 1 race, the advertisement will also be targeted to those users. Please see below for an example of an advertising match. Figure 55: Interactive Spot If the user chooses the interactive spot, he or she has many possibilities that are inside the short advertisement. The user can choose the background, for example if Fiat is the main advertiser, the user can choose from a lineup of Fiat cars which one he or she prefers to have in the ad. The number of choices and real-world products inside the ad depend on the number of advertisers who pay for the placement, however there should not be so many products that the user spends the entire advertising time bombarded with choices and has no time to play the actual game. Once the personalized choices (background theme, music, clothing, etc.) have been chosen, the virtual reality character enters into the designed environment. 11 “Speen Generation” target is a target group of age 15-21. This word derives from Speed+Teen=Speen. 154 APPENDIX A: Implementation Inside that environment, the user has the possibility to download content (example product demos, music videos, and entertaining advertisements) and interact with another user. This interaction is a text-based chat, as seen in the figure below. The innovative idea of having the advertisement also as a game that the user can play, is in reality not a new idea. Many analysts predict that the mix of advertising and gaming will be a very probable reality for the future. The prediction for in-game revenue is that by 2010 it will reach $1.8B, and account for 3% of total media spending.12 In fact, this forecast comes from a company called Massive, Inc. that is completely focused on in-game advertising and was just purchased by Microsoft in May of 2006. Figure 56: Invite a Friend A.3 Mapping the convergent service on the convergent architecture Keeping in mind the service presented in the previous paragraph, I want to explain here which devices take part in this service delivery. This service is just one of the many available so this procedure description is a subset of what is reachable due to the convergence through the Edge Network. I have considered this case pilot because it involves the Content Provider server which is the mainly effort I had to face. 12 http://www.massiveincorporated.com 155 APPENDIX A: Implementation Figure 57 displays a high level call flow describing the m-Advertising Game. Figure 57: High Level Service Call Flow The DVB-H Content Provider is the server transmitting broadcast contents continuously. It is the one which stores the program scheduling so it is able to know when a spot time is occurring. It sends an “Advertisement” message indicating the beginning and ending time of the advertisement time to the IMS application server in advance. In this way the IMS AS can inform users that an interactive spot is able. In order to do this the AS sends a multicast message to all the users authorized to receive this service, asking if they want to play the interactive spot. In the meantime, the Content Provider is still transmitting in broadcast. As two of the users accept, the IMS application server performs an association joining two generic users together. From now up, a session between these two users is established. They can chat or share files. Moreover, the user can choose another background inside the short advertisement, select a spot, download content or music, send an MMS to be displayed on the 156 APPENDIX A: Implementation broadcast transmission etc... These additional requests he or she can do are allowed because the Content Provider server is considered by the IMS network as an additional user. Thus, in this case the session is established between a user and the Content Provider server. Everything described up to now is possible thanks to the convergent architecture defined in this thesis. Indeed what I have done was to bind the IMS Presence Service to the DVB-H TV transmission. This is highlighted in this kind of service. This makes possible Instant Messaging and session establishment between users (Users Association). Furthermore, the Content Provider is able to know who-see-what. Due to the SIP protocol layered inside the Content Provider, this server can be synchronized with the IMS Application Server by messages exchange. Finally, the most innovative focus of attention is to simulate a session establishment and a session management between a user and the Content Provider, in order to allow Content Sharing: • TV on demand • Content Downloading • Display MMS. A.4 Proxy Simulation In order to demonstrate everything described before is possible I chose to simulate an IMS environment using a SIP proxy. In this simulation also the Content Provider server is involved. This device is an Edge Network element, so it provides all the functionalities needed to connect a DVB-H system to the IMS network. One of the functions the Content Provider server performs is session establishment. I want to underline this function because, at present, it is not offered in a kind of device like this. To understand better, Figure 58 shows the role played by the Content Provider server during the synchronization with the S-CSCF in the m-Advertising Game. 157 APPENDIX A: Implementation Figure 58: Content Provider server This figure illustrates an example of what the Content Provider does end which SIP messages are involved in a session establishing (in this case with the SIP Application Server). In particular, this points out that the Content Provider behaves differently by the two sides: • User side: it sends contents in broadcast • CN Side: it sends an advise to the SIP AS, establishing a session via S-CSCF In order to establish a session the message needed are INVITE and 200OK (S-CSCF redirect), in fact the Content Provider server does not need a registration procedure via P-CSCF because it is not a mobile terminal. Emphasizing the capability of the Content Provider server to establish a session, i.e. with a user as well as an IMS Application Server, I aimed to simulate it. So, I have considered a proxy which functions as a SIP registrar and a SIP presence server, using source code of a JAVA based SIP proxy built on top of the JAIN-SIP-1.1 API. Apart from other capabilities, this proxy can act as presence server and be able to process NOTIFY and SUBSCRIBE requests. If the parameter “Presence Server” is disabled, the proxy will simply forward those kinds of request following the appropriate routing decision. The proxy can fork the INVITE requests it receives. In Figure 59 the SIP proxy diagram class is displayed. 158 APPENDIX A: Implementation Figure 59: SIP Proxy This kind of proxy allows Instant Messaging between users, especially thanks to the presence function. There is, however, an issue to be solved in order to obtain what I was aimed at. This simulator does not establish sessions between users, so I had to implement the signaling needed to session. The IM (Instant Messaging) package containing all the class related to the IMS clients is shown in Figure 60. 159 APPENDIX A: Implementation Figure 60: Instant Messaging The Content Provider server can be simulated as one of this IM client which is IM User Agent inside the Presence Package. Moreover, I had to enable an HTTP session between users and between the Content Provider server and users in order to allow content or file sharing. Due to this, I have used an HTTPserver class. This class is called inside the processMessage( ) method, which is invoked inside the IMMessageProcessing class (in the package instantmessaging.presence). What I have done can be seen in the code below. 160 APPENDIX A: Implementation 161 APPENDIX A: Implementation The class diagram of what I have described is shown in Figure 61. Figure 61: HTTPServer Now is possible to establish sessions between users, in particular also HTTP sessions, without passing through the proxy compulsory excepting for the initial phase. Concentrating the attention to the Content Provider server, it is important to indicate that it takes the users’ presence from the proxy. In fact, the Content Provider can be treated by the proxy as a user taking advantage of other users’ presence. It can also take the users’ IP address from the proxy. This is very important to be able to establish a session directly with the users without the proxy. The User-Agent header field of the IP packets exchanged (between the User Agent and the SIP proxy in the INVITE or SUBSCRIBE procedure) contains information about the UAC (User Agent Client) originating the request. The interface Address is the one used for this purpose. It represents methods for manipulating Address object values for any header that contains an Address value. 162 APPENDIX A: Implementation In order to obtain everything explained up to now and to verify everything obtained works in the right way, a signaling trace was very helpful for me. It shows all the messages exchanged every time two terminals are connected. As the example in Figure 62 illustrates, the method, address and protocol used are displayed. Figure 62: Example of Signaling Trace Summing up, this simulation enables the Content Provider Server to connect directly to users due to a SIP proxy, establishing HTTP sessions. The Content Provider server is able to know the users’ presence, in fact a set of registrations that will be uploaded into the proxy at start-up time can be specified, modifying the "registrations.xml" file, as follows: <REGISTRATIONS> <REGISTRATION displayName="ANDREA" uri="sip:[email protected]"> <BUDDY uri="sip:[email protected]" /> </REGISTRATION> <REGISTRATION displayName="FRANCESCA" uri="sip:[email protected]"> <BUDDY uri="sip:[email protected]" /> </REGISTRATION> </REGISTRATIONS> 163 APPENDIX A: Implementation Finally, the screenshot in Figure 63 highlights the added capability of the Content Provider server to hold a buddy list of users. The Content Provider is the one surrounded in green: it has its own SIP URL and the SIP proxy is able to recognize it. It is clear in this way that the Content Provider can know the presence state of each user. Figure 63: SIP Proxy and Content Provider Server 164 APPENDIX B: Telecommunications Market Overview APPENDIX B: Telecommunications Market Overview In the telecommunication market scenario there is a continuous evolution. In particular the attention is focused on the new possibilities that come from the innovative technologies. The telecommunications world market is expected to continue its double-digit growth from 2004 to reach over $2 trillion by 2008. The principal drivers for this growth are improving economic conditions throughout the world, a growth in infrastructure equipment investment, and demand for mobile devices and wireless services. The number of wireless subscribers is growing quickly and high-speed broadband access will be a principal driver of equipment revenue in the next four years, helped by increased government support and a stronger economic environment. Broadband access revenue will triple between 2004 and 2008, from $33 billion to $101 billion. As the broadband market expands, the need for infrastructure to support the traffic will revitalize the network infrastructure equipment market. TIA13 expects equipment spending to increase at 8.1%, rising from $238 billion in 2004 to $325 billion in 2008. As the migration to wireless, voice over Internet protocol (VoIP) and cable telephony continues, the landline market will increase from $391 billion in 2004 to $422 billion in 2008, averaging only a 1.9 percent of growth. International wireless revenue will expand at an 11.6% from 2005-08, reaching $466 billion in 2008. The Wi-Fi and WiMAX market is increasing at a fast pace and will continue to grow as hot spots proliferate. We expect revenue from spending on wireless capital expenditures/Wi-Fi/WiMAX to reach an estimated $22.3 billion in 2005, climbing to $29.3 billion by 2008, a 7.1 percent compound annual gain. With the Wi-Fi and WiMAX markets expanding rapidly, we will begin to see more demand for mobile broadband and broadband connectivity. The digital television market on mobile phones is also expected to grow. It is predicted that 270 million users will subscribe to digital mobile television by the year 2009. 13 Telecommunications Industries Association, January 2006. www.tiaonline.org 165 APPENDIX B: Telecommunications Market Overview Every market has unique needs and challenges. However, regulators and government telecommunications officials should strive for common principles, including the following: • All people should have access to affordable, highly advanced and secure communications services. • Broadband deployment policies should be technology-neutral with respect to user/service provider choice among multiple broadband technology options. All broadband access technologies should be given equal consideration, if technologically feasible. These technologies include, but are not limited to, DSL, fiber, satellite, and fixed and mobile wireless. • All governments are strongly encouraged to adopt fair and well-considered national broadband deployment strategies: - promote competition as a means of facilitating ubiquitous deployment of broadband technologies; - limit regulation to that which addresses a specific, critical problem and minimize disruption to competitive market forces; - recognize the national benefits derived from the use of nascent technologies and not impose legacy regulatory models that would inhibit broadband technology deployment and present obstacles to addressing national needs; - adopt spectrum management policies that include plans for the provision of radio spectrum for the deployment of advanced communications services; One of the first concrete steps made by the Italian Government was the legislation regarding the management and deployment across the country of Wi-Fi. From now on it will be possible to cover and offer services between offices and houses. Operators and providers are now able to create new businesses and ADSL access also in areas that are difficult to reach with wired connections. However, the 3G network, and in particular the UMTS technology, makes different types of services already possible. The objective that the telephone companies have proposed is to reduce the dependence on voice traffic, therefore increasing the weight 166 APPENDIX B: Telecommunications Market Overview of the value added services. This new scenario should respond to the ruthless competition that they find in these months due to the introduction and growth of VoIP technology. The entry of new players may not destroy the value of this market – indeed, it may significantly increase it overall – but it will certainly change the rules of engagement.14 B.1 The International Scenario In Japan, the operator NTT DoCoMo has introduced 3G-specific services and content – including video-based entertainment – via its i-mode portal, while maintaining compatibility with existing 2G services. Usage has been further stimulated by the adoption of ‘all you can eat’ flat rate data tariffs that encourage user experimentation and exploration of new services. DoCoMo’s strategy – teaming a friendly user experience with extensive network coverage (now exceeding 99.9% of the population) and the availability of affordable, attractive handsets with longer battery life – has resulted in continuing subscriber growth as well as strengthened usage and ARPUs. One of the key explanatory variables for the success of i-mode is that DoCoMo created a viable business model where all actors, including operators, content providers, terminal manufacturers, portal/search engine providers and distributors, cooperated and had possibilities to run a profitable business. Vodafone is an operator with an extensive European presence that has already targeted consumers with its Live! 2G portal. Vodafone has already introduced 3G Live! across several of its operations, integrating 3G services (spanning mobile TV and video on demand) into its existing portal structure. Orange, in France, meanwhile, has associated the launch of its consumer/residential 3G/UMTS offering with four key services, namely video calling, video MMS, mobile television and mobile PC card access. Its Orange World portal has also been enhanced with new content, featuring a range of thematic channels for the French market and personalized infotainment services in the UK. In France, the operator’s ‘Orange Intense’ offering spans music and video downloads including more than 40 channels of mobile TV and radio plus video telephony and MMS. Orange’s initial 14 “3G/UMTS Towards Mobile Broadband and Personal Internet.” White Paper from the UMTS Forum, October 2005. 167 APPENDIX B: Telecommunications Market Overview offer has been supported by a range of 3G, 3G/EDGE and EDGE-only handset choices plus limited-period access to free mobile TV and unlimited video telephony. In Spain, Telefonica has introduced a mobile TV channel to Movistar 3G subscribers with services including streamed news. Overall, the analysts predict in the telecommunications market a continuous growth in partnerships between companies. There will also be the entrance of new players, the introduction of new dynamics and the evolution of the business and mobile services, all reaching the goal of a renewed convergent technologies, that once again can be the key factor for generating new opportunities.15 B.2 The Italian Scenario The goal of this section is to evaluate the Italian players and the competitive scenario in the mobile telecommunications market in Italy, in respect to the fact that the technological changes could create not only opportunities, but also substitute products and services, which will create an environment of high competition. Also, as convergence happens between what were formerly separate businesses, there is more competition to offer similar services through different modes, putting formerly separate companies in competition with one another. Therefore, it is helpful to identify the current mobile players and understand the dispersion of the market. B.2.1 Players in the Italian Market TIM (Telecom Italia Mobile), founded in 1990, manages TACS, GSM and also UMTS networks; it is a division of the fixed operator Telecom Italia, which is also an Internet Service Provider (ISP), offering a broadband service called Alice. The TIM Group, listed on the Milan Stock Exchange in 1995, is one of the main mobile telecommunications operators in the world; leader in the domestic market with over 26 million lines and a 42% market share as of December 31, 2004 and present in Europe, the Mediterranean Basin and South America. Recent news includes making accords with both RAI and Mediaset to offer 15 ”Mobile TV for Marketers: Monetizing the Smallest Screen.” eMarketer, April 2006. http://www.emarketer.com/Report.aspx?mobile_tv_apr06 168 APPENDIX B: Telecommunications Market Overview broadcasting to the mobile phone. They have also announced that they are teaming with Motorola and LG to develop Fixed-Mobile Convergence. Operative since 1995, “Vodafone” (that has bought Omnitel to enter in the Italian market) is the second-largest mobile operator in Italy. It manages GSM, GRPS, and UMTS networks. The Italian division is controlled by Vodafone Group, which is the world’s largest mobile operator. Recent news involving Vodafone Italy is that it has also announced a DVB-H partnership with Mediaset.16 Started in 1997, “Wind” is Italy’s third largest Mobile Network Operator. It owns GSM and UMTS networks. It was the first mobile operator in Italy to also offer fixed telecommunications (Infostrada), and a broadband internet service, called Libero. It is a joint venture with France Telecom. Operative since 2003, “H3G Italia” manages a 3G, GSM Dualband, and CDMA networks, and it was also the first mobile operator in Europe to offer UMTS services. It is a part of the internationally operating Hutchinson Whampoa group. “Tre” has just acquired a television channel and has therefore become the world’s first mobile operator to own a broadcasting license. They are launching a DVB-H network, and connected services, in June of 2006. “Blu” entered the market in 2000 and left in 2002, before the entrance of H3G (until now there have never been more than four mobile providers in Italy). It was the smallest of the network operators at the time. The company was a consortium of international companies, the main share-holders of which were Autostrade (with 32%) and British Telecom (20%) and Mediaset. 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