sequential analysis of maternal language in two italian - e

DiPAV, 2001, 2, 33-48
SEQUENTIAL ANALYSIS OF MATERNAL
LANGUAGE IN TWO ITALIAN SAMPLES
Germano Rossi •
Paola Venuti*
Marc H. Bornstein°
Riassunto
Questo articolo ha lo scopo di mostrare un modo di utilizzo del programma
GSEQ for Windows con dati di tipo Event. I dati provengono dalla trascrizione del
linguaggio usato dalle madre durante una interazione con il proprio bambino a 5 e
a 13 mesi. Non sono presentate ipotesi specifiche perché si suppone una generica
esplorazione delle sequenze di linguaggio della madre. Si considerano anche 3
variabili indipendenti (età e sesso del bambino ed area geografica), ma solo per
mostrare l'uso delle sequenze in ambito sperimentale.
Abstract
The aim of this article is to show ways of using the GSW program with Event
type data. The data come from transcriptions of mother’s language during
interactions with their own children at 5 and at 13 months. Specific hypotheses are
not presented because a generic exploration of the sequences of language of the
mother is supposed. Child age, sex and geographic area are also considered as
independent variables, but only to show the possibility of further analyses of
sequential data analysis.
•
Dipartimento di Psicologia e Antropologia culturale, Università degli Studi di Verona.
E-mail: [email protected]
* Department of Psychology, Second University of Naples. E-mail: [email protected]
° National Institute of Child Health and Human Development - Bethesda, MD, USA
Acknowledgments: The authors thank Vincenç Quera for advice provided in analysis of
these data.
33
G. Rossi, P. Venuti, M.H. Bornstein
1. Introduction
Sequential analysis is specifically used to explore sequential patterns of
behavior, such as what the child does immediately after the mother asks
him to do something, and to explore more complex patterns, such as what
the child does next
Mental schemes are thought to guide parental behavior; such schemes
are based on then parent’s conceptions of the parental role as defined by
culture (Darling & Steinberg, 1993). How parents act with their own
children and the language they use express this conception. Mothers and
fathers use language to direct the child to give children information about
the world, and to express affection (Bornstein, Tal, Rahn, Galperin,
Pecheux, Lamour, Toda, Azuma, Ogino, & Tamis-Le Monda, 1992;
Brown, 1977; Penman, Cross, Milgrom-Friedman and Meares, 1983).
Studies analyzing maternal behavior have highlighted the fact that some
mothers tend to involve their child in social-affective type exchanges,
whereas others prefer a didactic mode involving the children in extradyadic
interactions towards the outside environment (Bornstein & Tamis LeMonda, 1990). These modes of interaction can also be found in the
language used by the mothers towards their children. Maternal language
can accomplish an informative function, concerned with outside realities as
well as an affective function that stresses the expression of the emotional
states (Nelson, 1981; Bretherton, Mc New, Snyder, & Bates, 1983).
Longobardi (1992) also identified a tutorial function for language that
reveals an adaptation by the grown-up to the requests for the child and a
support to the child’s abilities; a didactic, function which aims at the
transmission of knowledge to the child; and, finally, an asynchronous
function thatincludes maternal intrusive behaviors with respect to the
activities of the child. In addition, the choice of a specific linguistic style
can be determined on the basis of the child’s age (Philips, 1973; Bates,
1976; Cross, 1977), the maternal intent to check the child's actions, or the
degree of involvement of the mother in communicative exchanges with her
child (McDonald and Pien, 1982).
The acquisition of language by the child takes place in an interactive
context, even before the child has learned to utter his/her first words
(Bruner, 1975, 1983; Volterra, Bates, Bretherton and Camaioni, 1977;
Bornstein and Lamb, 1992; Camaioni, 1993; Perrucchini, 1993). There
follows, then, the value of studying first communication forms between
34
Sequential analysis of maternal language...
mother and child and maternal language per se (Snow, 1972; Drach, 1969;
Sachs, Brown, Salerno, 1976). Maternal language seems to accomplish
sevral important functions in the development of the child:
• Language strengthens the closeness, contact, and affection within the
relationship (Kaye, 1982; Stern, 1985);
• Language renders the acquisition of the first linguistic forms easier
(Harris, 1991; Bornstein and Lamb, 1992; Garton, 1992);
• Language introduces the child tothe outside world, through the
messages people send (Blount, 1990).
Through direct longitudinal observations maternal language has been
studied both from a descriptive point of view and from the content point of
view ((Bruner, 1975; Bornstein, Tal, Rahn, Galperin, Pecheux, Lamour,
Toda, Azuma, Ogino and Tamis Le Monda, 1992; Longobardi, 1992;
Camaioni, Longobardi, Venuti and Bornstein, 1998; Venuti, Bornstein,
Toniatti, Rossi, 1997) Ferguson, 1977). Language used with the young
child (baby-talk) has been observed to be simpler than the adult language
(Snow 1972; Newport, Gleitman and Gleitman, 1977). Furthermore, the
adultaddressing the child tends to select language structure (syntactic and
lexical rules) and functions based on context (conversational rules and
partner-linguistic) (Gelman and Shatz, 1977; Camaioni, 1980). For
example, the number of propositions in adult speechto children seems to be
related to the activity and attention of the child (D'Odorico and Franco,
1986).
Other variables also affect the manner of adult speech to children; in
particular, some studies have suggested that the sex of the child modifies
the communicative style both of the father and of the mother (Stoneman
and Brody, 1981; Block, 1983). According to other authors, the context of
speech affects communicative style (O'Brien and Nagle, 1987). Systematic
differences also exist in the linguistic behavior of mothers belonging to
different socioeconomic levels (Bernstein, 1971; Hoff, Laursen, Tardif,
2002; Parisi, Barbieri and Savona Pizzino, 1971).
Setting aside this variation, maternal language appears generally
characterized by the capacity to suit the age of the child in way so
prominent that, according to Bellinger (1980), the very age of the child can
be predicted through an analysis of the language of the mother.
Both structural and the functional characteristics of maternal language
seem to be in narrow relation with the development of the child both in the
sense of making the learning easier and in the sense of determining the type
35
G. Rossi, P. Venuti, M.H. Bornstein
of linguistic acquisition that will characterize the child. Nelson (1973,
1981) identified two general styles of language learning in children, which
reflect the prevailing functions in the speech produced by the mother. They
are a referential style (major use of names, denomination of the objects)
and an expressive style (major use of imitations, its names of social
formulas for the control of the social interaction). Hampson and Nelson
(1993) suggested that mothers of children aged 13 to 20 months who were
using linguistic descriptions and denominations frequently had verbally
precocious children. Longobardi (1992) verified that with children in the
second year of life the tutorial and didactic functions of the maternal
communication have significant correlations with the linguistic
development of the child, and she observed that, through this type of
function, mothers address their children with a specifically selective
linguistic input and provide supports to the process of acquisition of
language.
2. Methods
The data used for this work were taken from a larger research project on
mother-child interactions involving many ages (5, 13, 20, and 48 months) and
countries (USA, Argentina, France, Italy, and others). We extracted two Italian
samples, focusing on mothers while they cared and played with their child in a
standardized situation with a set of toys provided by researchers. A researcher
video recorded the entire situation. For this paper, we used Italian data in an
attempt to explain sequential patterns and then make inferences from them. We
used 94 mother-child dyads, recorded when children are 5 and/or 13 months
old (39 both). The samples are differentiated according to the area (a city in the
North of Italy and a small village in the South of Italy; we call it “Urban” and
“Rural”) and the sex of child. Mothers are all married and living with their
husbands; all children are firstborn and healthy.
3. Measurement of maternal language
The speech of mothers during the 15 minutes of play interaction was
transcribed verbatim. The same video recording was transcribed by several
judges, checked, and revised if necessary.
36
Sequential analysis of maternal language...
Tab. 1 – Penman coding of maternal verbal behavior
Set
Code Categories
Direct
DA
DO
Report
RA
RO
RM
RE
Question
QA
QO
QM
QE
Expressive AE
AD
AN
AG
AM
AR
Speaking
S
OP
AL
C
CW
O
W
SB
ST
Naming
None
NC
NE
I
Action
state/feeling
Action
state/feeling
Mother
Environment
Action
state/feeling
Mother
Environment
Encouragement
Discouragement
non-sense
Greeting
Mimic
Recitation
Song
Onomatopoeia
Laughing
Convention
We
Speak for baby
Speak for toy
Name Child
Name
Examples
"look at the ball!"
"Do not be so angry!" [Don't be so angry!]
"You would like to throw the barrel"
"You are really enjoying yourself with these new games!"
"The mother throws the ball to you!"
"They are the bear's eyes"
"Do you want to call the granny?"
"Do you like this toy?"
"Do you want it to read you a book?"
"How does the train do?"
"Yes, well done!" / "That's all right like that"
"Do not take that one"
"balop balop"
"Hi!" / "Ready, who speaks?"
imitations of the expressions of the child
"Cucù-settete" / "Batti batti le manine..." ["Ring a ring of
roses…"]
"Gnam gnam; toc toc; din don"
"We look at this book"
"Yes granny, I was good"
the mother moves the hands of the doll and says "Ciao, Chiara;
what do you do?"
When the child's name recurs
"love", "dear", "honey"
Then, the transcripts were coded using Penman’s scheme (Penman et
al., 1983) as revised and adapted by Bornstein et al. (1992). Further
revisions and adaptations were necessary due to dialectal words and
constructions (“veneto” and “potentino”) used by some mothers in the
sample (Toniatti and Venuti, 1994). Each code unit corresponds to a
sentence uttered by the mother or a meaningful change in the sentence or
37
G. Rossi, P. Venuti, M.H. Bornstein
when there are more than 2 seconds of silence. A single word could be
considered a code unit.
The coders were native Italians able to speak and understand the
specific dialects of the two areas and trained to use the Penman codes.
Their agreement was measured with Pearson's correlation and was between
.85 and 1.00 (only one category was .76).
The Penman code consists of 28 categories, eventually grouped in 6 sets
(see Tab. 1).
4. Data Analysis
The analysis was made with GSEQ for Windows (version 4.0), a
software for sequential analysis (Bakeman and Quera, 1995; Gnisci and
Bakeman, 2000). Data were entered in SDIS format (Sequential Data
Interchange Standard by Bakeman and Quera, 1992) as Event sequences.
The first step was to calculate simple statistics (frequencies and
percentages). Pooling data over mothers, sessions (for a total of 31221 events),
and independent variables (GSEQ command: Pool + * Sex Age
Area;) arrived at the following frequencies and proportions (Tab. 2):
Tab. 2 – Frequencies and proportions for all subjects and categories
Codes
DA
Freq
Rel freq
Codes
QE
Freq
1953
Rel freq
Codes
.0626
AL
5395
.1728
DO
85
.0027
AE
993
.0318
C
RA
384
.0123
AD
716
.0229
CW
RO
579
.0185
AN
760
.0243
RM
610
.0195
AG
396
.0127
RE
3670
.1175
AM
377
QA
1537
.0492
AR
212
QO
1480
.0474
S
QM
155
.0050
OP
Freq
529
Rel freq
.0169
6692
.2143
68
.0022
O
135
.0043
W
1239
.0397
.0121
SB
40
.0013
.0068
ST
26
.0008
82
.0026
NC
1335
.0428
514
.0165
NE
580
.0186
None
679
.0217
There are 8 categories with a percentage less than 1%: DO, QM, AR, O,
CW, ST, SB, S, and only 4 categories above 5% (DA, RE, QE, and C). On
this basis, we decided not to use all single categories but only the 6 sets
(Direct, Report, etc.). For example: W, SB, and ST categories were
38
Sequential analysis of maternal language...
recorded as Speaking (using GSW command: Recode Speaking = w
sb st;). The new simple statistical data now are as shown in Tab. 3:
Tab. 3 - Frequencies and proportions for sets
Codes
Freq Rel freq
Direct
5480 0.1755
Report
5125 0.1642
Question 5243 0.1679
Codes
Freq
Rel freq
Express
Speaking
Naming
None
11474
1305
1915
679
0.3675
0.0418
0.0613
0.0217
The second step in the analysis was to verify whether (after recording
the categories in the sets) autotransitions were the more frequent transitions
(see Tab. 4). A LUMP command (Lump Report = qa qo qm qe;)
was used to modify the sequences so that codes that were repeated
immediately after themselves were lumped together as a single occurrence.
As a result, autotransitions were removed from the data.
Tab. 4 – Conditional probabilities at lag 1 with auto-transitions
Dir
Rep
Que
Exp
Spe
Nam
Dir
0.2127
0.1036
0.1283
0.4242
0.0355
0.0754
Non
0.0203
Rep
Que
Exp
Spe
Nam
Non
0.1255
0.1530
0.1867
0.1484
0.2126
0.1612
0.2064
0.1819
0.1736
0.0966
0.1633
0.1583
0.1437
0.1954
0.1928
0.1360
0.1386
0.1923
0.3961
0.3503
0.3412
0.4065
0.3118
0.3787
0.0345
0.0364
0.0409
0.1414
0.0283
0.0503
0.0750
0.0581
0.0421
0.0433
0.1323
0.0311
0.0188
0.0249
0.0227
0.0278
0.0131
0.0281
The next step was to prepare a 6 by 6 lag 1 contingency table, where all
sets are used both as given and as targets. In this table, transitions were
calculated for all dyads together, for all dyads at 5, and for all dyads at 13
months. Chi-square statistics for the three tables weres significant (528.58,
211.79, and 400.95, respectively, ps < 0.001 with dfs = 29). Therefore, we
may suppose a sequential relation among these categories in mothers’
speech. In addition, these results hold for each age level and for all the
children taken altogether. On this basis, we calculated the adjusted residual
from observed and expected transition frequencies, in order to identify
which transitions occurred significantly more than expected. Table 4 shows
39
G. Rossi, P. Venuti, M.H. Bornstein
the adjusted residuals corresponding to 5 months. This table may
interpreted as follows:
+ Each row denotes a language category that appears as given
+ Each column denotes a language category that appears as target
+ Each cell shows the adjusted residual: if positive and high (greater
than 1.96 with α = .05, 2-tailed), the target categories occur after the given
one more often than expected; if negative and high (less than –1.96), the
target category occurs after the given one less often than expected.
For example, this table suggests that after they use direct sentences
mothers tend to use expressive or naming sentences (adjusted residuals 3.08
and 3.60, respectively) but not report sentences (-5.88). Sequences like
“Look at the ball [DA]. Yes, well done! [AE]” tend to be used, but
sequences like “See the ball [DA]. Mommy gives you the ball [RA]” are
not.
Table 4 - Adjusted Residuals for Lag 1 (lumped data) on 5 months sample.
Direct
Direct
Report
Question
Expressive
Speaking
Naming
None
Report
-5.88
-3.28
-1.29
0.50
0.80
4.58
0.92
4.39
0.97
-4.40
2.44
0.62
Question
Expressive
-1.46
-2.96
3.18
-1.11
-0.73
1.70
3.08
2.00
-3.51
2.87
-3.26
-1.52
Speaking
-0.53:
-0.82:
0.78:
0.64:
-1.00:
0.57:
Naming
3.60:
5.96:
1.64:
-6.79:
-0.36:
None
1.81:
-1.17:
0.71:
-0.97:
2.01:
-1.26:
-1.86:
Adjusted residuals not meeting conditions for normal approximation are followed
by a colon.
Table 6 compares the significant and positive adjusted residuals for the
all dyads and for 5 and 13 months. We can see that almost the same
sequences had a significant value in the 3 groups, meaning that there is
certain homogeneity across the two ages.
The adjusted residual depends on the total, and so we cannot directly
compare ages, but only within age subgroups. At 5 months, the most
frequent sequence is Report-Naming, while at 13 (and in the whole group)
it is Direct-Naming.
40
Sequential analysis of maternal language...
Tab. 6 - Adjusted residuals for Lag 1
Given
Target
5m
13m
All
Direct
Direct
Report
Report
Question
Expressive
Speaking
Naming
Naming
Expressive
Naming
Expressive
Naming
Report
Question
Expressive
Direct
Report
3.08
3.60:
5.96:
4.39
3.18
2.87
4.58
2.44
5.48
9.10:
4.75:
7.47
4.27
7.57
-
6.45
8.28:
2.19
7.93:
8.09
4.84
3.19
7.95
3.00
To compare the effects of independent variables (age, sex and other)
with the strength of transitions, we must use other association statistics like
log odds ratio, Yule’s Q, and Phi that do not depend on sample size
(Bakeman and Gottman, 1986). Log odds ratio may vary between minus
and plus infinite with 0 indicating no association; Yule’s Q and Phi are like
a correlation coefficients and may vary between minus and plus 1.
These statistics are defined for 2 x 2 table, and so (with GSEQ) we may
calculate and export the Yule’s Q for every possible significant
combination (for example, Given: Direct vs. others; Target: Expressive vs.
others) and for each dyad in the sample.
Following the “almost 5” rule (Bakeman, 2000; Gnisci and Bakeman,
2000, p. 95), we checked each 2x2 table of Direct-Expressive sequence (for
example) in order to verify whether the marginal total frequencies were less
than 5, with GSEQ 4.0 new option:
File "Pen3_it.mds";
Pool no+ no*;
Stats jntf conp yulq cphi lnor;
Target Direct Report Question Expressive Speaking
Naming None;
Lags 1;
Export "Pen3_yq.sps" jntf conp yulq yulq$ spss label
overwrite hide;
As a result, some dyads with marginal totals less than 5 were filtered
out, using the exported data and SPSS. A series of ANOVAs was
41
G. Rossi, P. Venuti, M.H. Bornstein
calculated using individual Yule’s Q as the dependent variable and age
(5m, 13m), sex (male, female), and area (urban, rural) as independent
variables.
For Direct-Expressive sequences, the ANOVA results showed that only
the main effects Area and Age are significant and that there is no
interaction between the independent variables. The same result can be seen
with reference to Expressive-Question association. For Report-Naming and
Naming-Direct only main effects for Age were significant (see Tab. 7). The
Sex by Age interaction for the Expressive-Question association was
significant as well (see Tab. 8).
When interpreting Direct-Expressive results, we can claim that in rural
dyads this transition had a higher association that in Urban ones. The
association Direct-Expressive was also higher at 13 months than at 5
months.
Tab. 7 - Yule’s Q Means for significant main effects.
Area
Age
Urban Rural 5m
M
M
M
13m
M
Direct-Expressive
.318
.501
.324
Report-Naming
Expressive-Question
Naming-Direct
.307
-
.089
.042 -.217
.270 .125
-.038 .238
.496
Report-Naming associations are higher at 5 months, and Naming-Direct
the opposite. Expressive-Question associations are more frequent among
urban mothers and at 5 months. For this association, the Sex main effect
was not significant, but there was an interaction of Sex by Area. This effect
was due to a difference in male sub-samples: there is a relatively high
association for Expressive and Question sentences in urban mothers of
boys, but no correlation among rural mothers of boys.
Tab. 8 - Yule’s Q Means: Sex by area for Expressive-Question associations
Male
M
Urban
Rural
.388
.002
42
Female
M
.275
.176
Sequential analysis of maternal language...
There were no significant results for Direct-Naming and QuestionReport associations.
Tab. 5 shows that some longer sequences might be explored: The fact
that Direct-Expressive and Expressive-Question are both significant and
positive begs the question whether (Direct! Expressive)!Question is also
significant and positive. GSEQ allows us to define Direct-Expressive (in
this order) as a new category (CHAIN command) and to calculate the 2 by
2 contingency tables from Direct-Expressive to Question:
File "C:\dati\Pen3_it.mds";
Pool no+ no*;
Chain DesExp = Direct Expressive;
Stats jntf yulq;
Target Question &;
Lags 1;
Given DesExp &;
Export "c:\Dati\deq.sps" yulq yulq$
hide;
spss
overwrite
Table 9 presents the adjusted residuals for (Direct!Expressive)
!Question for all combinations of levels of the independent variables. We
can see that 3 residuals are significant and positive (for urban dyads at 5
months and for urban dyads with male child at 13 months). To verify these
sequences, we need to calculate association statistics. Also in this case, we
opted for Yule’s Q, but 32 dyads (all at 5months) did not pass the “almost
5” criterion and the number of dyads was not sufficient for further analysis.
The same step may be used with Direct-Naming-Direct, Report-NamingDirect, and so on.
Tab. 9- Adjusted residuals for (Direct-Expressive)-Question
Urban
5m
13m
m
f
m
f
n=28
n=27
n=17
n=13
3.16
6.01
3.50
0.79
43
Rural
n=14
n=21
n=5
n=8
-1.43
-0.46
0.08
-0.04
G. Rossi, P. Venuti, M.H. Bornstein
4. Conclusions
Italian mothers at 5 and at 13 months used Expressive (37%) most, then
Direct, Report, and Questions approximately equally (17% each). This
means that mothers talking with their own babies frequently encouraged
and discouraged them with their speech. The sequences of functional
categories of speech used by mothers most often were "What does the train
do? This is a train" (Question followed by a Report) or "Honey, look at the
ball" (Naming followed by Direct) or "Look at the horse. Balop, balop"
(Direct followed by Expressive). These sequences were used more
frequently than expected.
Rural mothers use more Direct-Expressive sequences than mothers
living in a more urban environment, and the latter also used more
Expressive-Question sequences than others.
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