The importance of traditional uses and nutraceutical aspects of

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The importance of traditional uses and nutraceutical
aspects of some edible wild plants in human nutrition:
the case of Umbria (central Italy)
a
b
a
Aldo Ranfa , Angela Maurizi , Bruno Romano & Mara Bodesmo
a
a
Dipartimento di Biologia Applicata - Sezione di Botanica Ambientale e Applicata,
Università degli Studi di Perugia, Italy
b
Dipartimento di Scienze Economico-Estimative e degli Alimenti, Sezione di Chimica
Bromatologica, Biochimica, Fisiologia e Nutrizione, Università degli Studi di Perugia, Italy
Accepted author version posted online: 29 Jan 2013.Version of record first published: 25
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To cite this article: Aldo Ranfa , Angela Maurizi , Bruno Romano & Mara Bodesmo (2013): The importance of traditional
uses and nutraceutical aspects of some edible wild plants in human nutrition: the case of Umbria (central Italy), Plant
Biosystems - An International Journal Dealing with all Aspects of Plant Biology: Official Journal of the Societa Botanica
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Plant Biosystems, 2013
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/11263504.2013.770805
The importance of traditional uses and nutraceutical aspects of some
edible wild plants in human nutrition: the case of Umbria (central Italy)
ALDO RANFA1, ANGELA MAURIZI2, BRUNO ROMANO1, & MARA BODESMO1
1
Dipartimento di Biologia Applicata - Sezione di Botanica Ambientale e Applicata, Università degli Studi di Perugia, Italy and
Dipartimento di Scienze Economico-Estimative e degli Alimenti, Sezione di Chimica Bromatologica, Biochimica, Fisiologia e
Nutrizione, Università degli Studi di Perugia, Italy
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2
Abstract
This study aimed to show how the importance of edible wild plants regards not only a question of uses linked to folk traditions
but also their value in human nutrition. Data on the use of 50 species were collected through informed consent semistructured interviews with local informants. They were eaten raw in salads (43%), boiled (35%), as ravioli filling (10%), fried
without or with eggs (8%) and in vegetable soup (4%). Furthermore, the nutraceutical analysis centred on four of the
commonly used wild edible plants demonstrates how these species contain many of the so-called minor nutrients, such as
antioxidising vitamins and polyphenols, which were highest in Sanguisorba minor L.
Keywords: Antioxidant properties, edible wild plants, ethnobotanical analysis, traditional use
Introduction
The concept of “food as medicine” (Hippocrates, 400
B.C.) has existed since ancient times, and man has
lived in close relationship with his environment for
thousands of years, learning how to recognise, gather
and use the products of the earth not only as food but
also for medicinal purposes. Indeed, gathering wild
edible plants and hunting were primitive man’s
means of survival right from the earliest of times
(Bermùdez et al. 2005).
Wild plants have been object of numerous studies
as many possess new and unusual therapeutic and
nutritional properties (Etkin & Ross 1982; Etkin
1994; Moreno-Black et al. 1996; Pieroni 1999;
Vitalini et al. 2006; Pardo de Santayana et al. 2007),
and the beneficial effects of the Mediterranean diet
on human health are well documented, such as high
fibre content, vitamins with an antioxidant function,
total polyphenols, vitamins and minerals (see Cao
et al. 1993; Guerrero Guil et al. 1999; Grivetti &
Ogle 2000; Simopoulos 2004, Schaffer et al. 2005;
Ranfa et al. 2011; Vanzani et al. 2011). Defining the
content of these components is essential because of
their antioxidant functions (Luterotti et al. 1998;
Redi 1999), indeed at present, oxidant stress is
known to be responsible for some forms of cancer
(Cohen et al. 2000), as well as for degenerative
pathologies such as those affecting the cardiocirculatory system (hypertension, atherosclerosis,
heart attack and stroke; Polidori et al. 1998; Yang
et al. 2001) and the autoimmune system (Iborra &
Palacio Martinez 2005), with repercussions on the
central nervous system thus leading to Alzheimer’s
and Parkinson’s disease (Linert & Jameson 2000;
Sudha et al. 2003).
A renewed interest in the use of edible wild plants
is closely linked to the rediscovery of local traditions
(Hadjichambis et al. 2008), food habits and the role
that these species have played in different cultures or
ethnic groups (Ladio & Lozada 2003; Leonti et al.
2006). Recently, they have become the subject of local
fairs and markets (Figure 1(A)) where they are sold as
culinary specialities and also of thematic courses,
field trips and specialist exhibitions to satisfy the
curiosity of the general public (see Figure 1(B) – (E)).
Correspondence: M. Bodesmo, Dipartimento di Biologia Applicata – Sezione di Botanica Ambientale e Applicata, Università degli Studi di Perugia, Borgo XX
Giugno, Perugia 06121, Italy. Tel: þ39 0755856441. Fax: þ39 0755856069. Email: [email protected]
q 2013 Società Botanica Italiana
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2
A. Ranfa et al.
Figure 1. Local social gatherings and markets in Spello (Pg) aimed
at promoting knowledge of edible wild plants.
In Italy, the first ethnobotanical studies were carried
out in the second half of the twentieth century. Then
from the 1970s, a large amount of research was done
in various regions of Italy, focalising mainly on the use
of wild plants in folk medicine, human consumption,
magic rituals and ethno-veterinary practices (Caneva
et al. 1997; Guarrera et al. 2005; Guarrera et al. 2006;
Ghirardini et al. 2007; Guarrera & Leporatti 2007;
Camangi et al. 2009; Cornara et al. 2009; Guarrera
et al. 2009).
In Umbria, few authors have looked into these
questions, and those who have done so have dealt
mainly with the rediscovery of local traditional
medicinal and nutritional uses of some wild plants
(Menghini et al. 1975; Leporatti et al. 1985; Nardelli
1987; Pezzotta 1994; Moreno-Black et al. 1996;
Dalla Ragione & Dalla Ragione 2003; Ranfa 2004;
Parziani et al. 2005; Ranfa 2005; Ranfa et al. 2011).
This study takes the point of view that the
rediscovery of traditional uses of edible wild plants is
an important facet of the reappraisal of local origins
and underlines how a renewed interest in their
nutritional uses has arisen, given their high nutraceutical properties. Indeed, the main objective was to
demonstrate the importance of edible wild plants as a
reserve of genetic resources capable of satisfying both
present and future biotechnological and agro-industry needs as well as of improving daily diet and
preventing degenerative processes, thanks to their
high antioxidant nutrient content.
Material and methods
The study was conducted in Umbria, Central Italy, a
region where natural and semi-natural areas still
survive in which many edible wild plants can be
Figure 2. The four edible wild plants analysed in the nutraceutical
analysis: (A) B. perennis L., (B) B. erucago L., (C) C. juncea L. and
(D) S. minor Scop.
found, and where, in small rural communities,
traditional uses of these species are still very much
alive (see Figure 1 – Study area).
This study began with an ethnobotanical analysis
by means of an ad hoc semi-structured interview
involving 138 females and 68 males, with median age
of 76 years. They were selected from among the
elderly population in rural areas who still retain
knowledge of traditional uses, having spent their lives
as farm workers, thus acquiring survival skills and
practical knowledge by gathering, preparing and
eating wild plants throughout the year. Some
informants were able to provide citations on various
wild plants. Most of the interviewees belonged to the
female group, which still retains the most information
concerning the heritage of domestic remedies. Quite
often, the interviews were conducted in the fields. For
species not available at the moment of the interview,
informants were asked to recognise these species by
means of a plant atlas. They were asked to provide
information on the local names, the alimentary use,
the parts used and the traditions connected with the
commonest wild plants in the region.
The nutraceutical research centred on four of the
most commonly used wild edible species in Umbria
which belong to different botanical families and have
different nutraceutical properties: Bellis perennis L.,
Bunias erucago L., Chondrilla juncea L. and Sanguisorba minor Scop (Figure 2(A) –(D)), respectively.
These four species were chosen because they
belong to the Compositae, Cruciferae and Rosaceae
families which are among the most representative
and well known in traditional folk recipes and are the
best known and most widely used, both raw and
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Uses and nutraceutical aspects of wild plants
cooked, in Umbria (see Table I) (Ranfa 2004, 2005;
Marioli 2010; Ranfa et al. 2011).
Various samples of the four species were collected,
and were analysed with a Stereomicroscope SX45 and
were determined according to the Checklist of
the Italian Vascular Flora (Conti et al. 2005, 2007).
The authors’ names were standardised according to
Brummitt and Powell (1992). All the exsiccatae of the
aforementioned species are preserved in the “Erbario
PERU” of the Università degli Studi di Perugia.
To determine the nutraceutical aspects, the
various determinations were carried out in triplicate
on a pool of fresh samples for each of the four species
collected in Spring and Autumn in Umbria, using the
traditional methods described in literature, Official
Methods of Analysis of Association of Official
Analytical Chemists (AOAC) INTERNATIONAL
1990 or ISTISAN 1996/34, and the most recent
analytical techniques (Luterotti et al. 1998; Redi
1999; Burini & Coli 2003).
In this way, apart from the classical chemical
percentage composition, the other so-called minor
components were determined which have been
difficult to define until recently. Particular attention
was paid to defining the principal components with
antioxidant functions and total antioxidant capacity
using the ORAC method (Oxygen Radical Absorbance Capacity, USDA; Ou et al. 2001).
The mineral content was determined with the
system of flame sampling by the atomic emission
spectrographic method (as described in AOAC
method, 2006, 953.01) using the PFP7 Flame
Photometer, Jenway Techne, Inc., (Jemway Techne
Inc., Burlington, NJ, USA), and by atomic
absorption spectrophotometer (AA-6800, Shimadzu
Corporation, Chyoda – Ku, Tokyo, Japan), according
to the AOAC method, 2006, 975.03. All data were
processed using the Star version 4.10 software
package and, where necessary, some integration
corrections were made manually. The statistical
analysis of the data was carried out using the
Statistical Analysis System (release 8.1, SAS Insitute
Inc., Cary, NC, USA).
Results
Ethnobotanical analysis
The analysis revealed that the most well-known and
widely used edible wild plants in Umbria belong
mainly to the Compositae family, followed by the
Cruciferae family. The main use was as food (73%),
followed by medicinal (12%) and veterinary (2%)
according to local habits and customs handed down
from one generation to the next.
The plants were mainly used in raw salad (43%),
boiled (35%), as side dishes or in ravioli fillings
3
(10%), fried without or with eggs (8%) or in
vegetable soup (4%). In most cases, it was
uncommon to find the use of a single species, as a
mixture was preferred to balance the different
flavours (Figure 3).
The data collected during the interviews provided
information on the use of 50 species among the most
common edible wild plants in Umbria, as well as
local names (Table I).
The following is a description of some of the most
common uses: in salads, the sweeter herbs such as
“grespigni” – sow thistle (Sonchus L. spl.), “piantaggine” – plantain (Plantago lanceolata L.) and
“borragine” – borage (Borago officinalis L.), mitigate
the bitterness of “cicoria” – chickory (Cichorium
intybus L. s.l.), “pisciacane” – dandelion (Taraxacum
officinale group) and “erba brusca” – bristly ox-tongue
[Helminthotheca echioides (L.) Holub].
In raw salads, there is a mixture of “pimpinella” –
salad burnet (S. minor Scop. s.l.), “raponzolo” –
bellflower (Campanula rapunculus L.), pimpinellone
(Tordylium apulum L.), “caccialepre” [Reichardia
picroides (L.) Roth], “carota selvatica” – wild carrot
(Daucus carota L. s.l.), “erba bussola” – prickly
lettuce (Lactuca serriola L.) and “borsa del pastore” –
shepherd’s purse [Capsella bursa-pastoris (L.) Medik.
subsp. bursa-pastoris ].
Many species are used as condiments in pasta and
rice dishes, such as “ortica” – stinging nettles (Urtica
dioica L. subsp. dioica), “strigoli” – bladder campion
[Silene vulgaris (Moench) Garcke s.l.] and “asparago
selvatico” – wild asparagus (Asparagus acutifolius L.).
These species are also used to give a distinctive
flavour to omelettes and soups (see Table I).
Nutraceutical analysis
All four species analysed showed the presence of all
the dietary energetic principles, although in different
concentrations. After water, carbohydrates made up
the greater part with values that range from 1.0% in
B. perennis to 6.0% in S. minor; intermediate values
were found in C. juncea and B. erucago, which
contained 2.0% and 3.0%, respectively (Table II).
Protein content ranged from 1.4% in B. perennis
to 3.8 g/100 g of edible portion in S. minor, with C.
juncea (1.9 g/100 g) and B. erucago (2.2 g/100 g) in an
intermediate position. The total fat content was very
low in all four species, below 1.0%.
The total water content varied from 76.2% to
87.8% while the total ash content ranged from
1.8 g/100 g in C. juncea to 5.3 g/100 g in B. perennis.
Fibre content ranged from 5.8% in C. juncea to
10.5% in S. minor.
It is interesting to note mineral content (see
Table III). Iron content, especially in B. perennis and
B. erucago, was much higher than in meat, although
Cruciferae
Liliaceae
Liliaceae
Liliaceae
Compositae
Boraginaceae
Cruciferae
Campanulaceae
Alliaria petiolata (M.Bieb.)
Cavara & Grande
Allium neapolitanum Cirillo
Allium triquetrum Ten.
A. acutifolius L.
B. perennis L.
B. officinalis L.
B. erucago L.
C. rapunculus L.
Calamintha nepeta
(L.) Savi s.l.
Valerianaceae
Compositae
Compositae
Ranunculaceae
C. intybus L. s.l.
Clematis vitalba L.
Crepis sancta (L.) Babc.
subsp. sancta
Cruciferae
Compositae
H. echioides (L.) Holub
Cruciferae
Compositae
Umbelliferae
Crepis vesicaria L. s.l.
D. carota L. s.l.
Diplotaxis erucoides
(L.) DC. subsp.
erucoides
Diplotaxis tenuifolia
(L.) DC.
Compositae
Cruciferae
Cruciferae
Cardamine hirsuta L.
C.
bursa-pastoris
(L.)
Medik. subsp. bursa-pastoris
Centranthus ruber (L.) DC.
subsp. ruber
C. juncea L.
Labiatae
Botanical family
Scientific names
Maraiuole, ruchetta violacea,
ruchettone
Rucola, rucoletta, rucoletta di
campo, ruchetta selvatica
Aspraggine volgare, erba
brusca, erba bruscia, spraggine
Clematide, vitabbie
Crepide, dolcetta,
radicchiella di terrasanta
Cota, crepide vescicosa, radicchiella vescicosa,
radicchio scoltellato
Carota selvatica
Valeriana rossa
Mastrici, pioletta, piole
Cicoria, cicorietta, radicchio
selvatico, radici amare
Raponzolo, ramponzolo, raperonzolo, rapunzoli
Calamento,
mentuccia
comune, nepitella selvatica
Billeri primaticcio,
cardamine
Borsa di pastore,
borsacchina, capsella
Borragine, boragine
Cascellora, cascellore comune,
cotecacchie, navone selvatico
Alliaria comune, erba alliaria
Aglio napoletano
Aglio angolare, aglio trigono,
aglio selvatico
Asparago, asparago
dei boschi
Margheritina, pratolina
Local names
Leaves
Leaves
Young leaves
Young leaves
Whole aerial parts, roots
Young leaves
Young shoots
Young leaves
Leaves, young shoots
Leaves, whole aerial parts,
leaves stalks, young shoots
Young leaves
Leaves, whole aerial parts,
young shoots
Young leaves and flowers
Leaves
Leaves, young shoots,
flowers
Leaves, roots or rootstocks,
shaft, young shoots, whole
aerial parts
Young shoots
Leaves, bulbs
Leaves, young and seed
Leaves, bulbs
Part(s) used
Boiled
Raw in salads, vegetable soup
Raw in salads, boiled
Raw in salads, boiled
Raw in salads, boiled
Raw in salads, boiled
Raw in salad, boiled
Raw in salads
Boiled, raw in salads, ravioli
filling
Fried in fat, without or with
beaten eggs (“Frittata”)
Raw in salad, vegetable soup
Raw in salads, boiled, vegetable
soup
Raw in salads, boiled
Raw in salads, boiled, radice
cruda in insalata
Raw, in salads, fried in fat,
without or with beaten eggs
(“Frittata”), ravioli filling,
boiled
Raw-salad, boiled
Fried in fat, without or with
beaten eggs (“Frittata”), boiled
Raw-salad, boiled
Raw-salad
Preparation
Table I. Fifty species of locally used edible wild plants: local names, parts used, preparation and number of citations.
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3
1
2
2
1
1
2
8
1
13
5
2
2
9
14
6
5
12
2
1
3
Number of
citations
Digestive properties
Diuretic to refresh the
kidneys and very effective treatment for rheumatism
Some medicinal use
4
A. Ranfa et al.
L.
Cruciferae
Nasturtium officinale R. Br.
Subsp. officinale
Plantaginaceae
Portulaceaceae
P. lanceolata L.
Portulaca oleracea L. s.l.
Rhagadiolus stellatus (L.)
Gaertn.
Pimpinella, pimpinellone
Strigoli, stricoli
Polygonaceae
Rosaceae
Caryophyllaceae
Compositae
Compositae
Compositae
Rumex acetosella L. s.l.
S. minor Scop. S.l.
S.
vulgaris
(Moench)
Garcke s.l.
Sonchus asper (L.) Hill s.l.
Sonchus oleraceus L.
T. officinale (group)
Crespigno spinoso, crespignola
Gruspigno, cruspino, crispigno, cruspigno, grespigno,
crespigno
Pisciacane, piscialletto, soffione, dente di leone, dendelion
Acetosella, romice acetosella
Acetosa, romice acetosa
Polygonaceae
Compositae
Papavero comune, rosolaccio
Vetriola comune
Aspraggine comune, erba
brusca
Plantago, lanciuola, lingua di
cane
Porcacchia, porcellana
Erba cornetta, radicchio
lirato, ragaggiolo, raggiolo
Caccialepre, scaccialepre,
grattalingua
Malva
Crescione d’acqua, crescione
delle fontane, crescione di
sorgente
Trenette, trinciatella, radicchio
selvatico
Costole d’asino, costolina
giuncolina, ingrassaporci,
piattello
Lattuga dei boschi
Lattuga perenne, lattuga
rupestre
Lattuga selvatica
Local names
R. picroides (L.) Roth
Rumex
acetosa
subsp. acetosa
L.
Compositae
Picris hieracioides L. s.l.
Compositae
Papaveraceae
Urticaceae
Papaver
rhoeas
subsp. rhoeas
Parietaria officinalis L.
L.
Malvaceae
Compositae
Compositae
Compositae
Compositae
Compositae
Botanical family
Malva
sylvestris
subsp. sylvestris
L.
Hypochaeris radicata L.
Lactuca muralis (L.) Gaertn.
Lactuca
perennis
L.
subsp. perennis
L. serriola L.
Hyoseris
radiata
subsp. radiata
Scientific names
Table I – continued
Leaves, whole aerial parts,
young shoots, shaft
Leaves, whole aerial parts,
young shoots, shaft, flowers
Young leaves
Young leaves
Leaves, whole aerial parts,
young shoots
Whole aerial parts, young
shoots
Young leaves
Young leaves
Leaves, whole aerial parts,
flowers, roots
Leaves, whole aerial parts
Young leaves, seed
Young leaves, young shoots
Leaves
Boiled, raw in salads
Boiled, Raw in salads
Raw in salad, boiled
Raw in salads, boiled
Risotto, fried with eggs
(Frittata)
Vegetable soup
Raw in salads, boiled, vegetable
soup, ravioli filling
Raw in salads, boiled
Boiled, raw in salads
Boiled, raw in salads
Boiled, in salads
Boiled
Raw in salads
Vegetable soup, ravioli filling,
raw in salads, seed in bread and
cookies
Boiled, vegetable soup
Infusions, decoctions
Raw in salads, boiled
Raw in salads
Raw in salads, boiled
Raw in salads, vegetable soup
Young leaves
Young leaves
Young leaves
Leaves, leaves stalks
Raw in salads, boiled
Preparation
Young leaves
Part(s) used
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25
12
8
8
15
2
2
16
3
6
1
4
5
6
3
2
3
5
5
1
3
Number of
citations
Remedy for mouth
ulcers
Depurative and diuretic
properties
Insect bites or as a
remedy for mouth ulcers
Digestive properties
Infusions for the relief of
heartburn and indigestion
Some medicinal use
Uses and nutraceutical aspects of wild plants
5
Botanical family
Umbelliferae
Compositae
Compositae
Compositae
Urticaceae
Scientific names
T. apulum L.
Tragopogon pratensis L. s.l.
Tragopogon porrifolius L. s.l.
Urospermum dalechampii
(L.) F.W. Schmidt
Urtica dioica L. subsp. dioica
Table I – continued
Ortica
Pimpinellone, pimpinella
vellutata, zampa d’oca, saporitella
Baciapreti, barba di becco
comune, barba di prete, salsefica
Barba di becco violetta, raperonzolo selvatico, salsefica
Cicoria matta, grugno, grugno
amaro, grugnola
Local names
Leaves, whole aerial parts
Leaves, young shoots, roots,
whole aerial parts, roots
Roots, young leaves
Roots, young leaves, shaft
Leaves, whole aerial parts
Part(s) used
Boiled, raw in salads
Boiled, ravioli filling, risotti,
fried with eggs (frittata)
Raw in salads, boiled
Raw in salads, boiled
Raw in salads
Preparation
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6
14
2
1
9
Number of
citations
Excellent remedy for
dysmenorrhoea
Some medicinal use
6
A. Ranfa et al.
Uses and nutraceutical aspects of wild plants
7
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except for S. minor, for which the content in 100 g
satisfied 20% of daily ascorbic acid requirement.
Total polyphenol content varied greatly from rather
low in C. juncea to quite high in the other species,
particularly in S. minor (258 mg/100 of edible parts),
especially when the high water content of these types
of samples was taken into consideration.
The ORAC method results are given in Table V. S.
minor showed the highest values, followed by
B. erucago, C. juncea and B. perennis. Just how
important these data are can be seen when considering that these values are similar to, if not at times
higher than, those of some cultivated plants such as
cabbage, carrots, celery, fennel, lettuce, courgettes
and tomatoes.
Figure 3. Edible wild plants are used in Umbrian cooking: raw in
salads (43%), boiled (35%), in ravioli fillings (10%) and fried (8%).
its inorganic form and bioavailability probably make
intestinal absorption difficult. Potassium, calcium
and magnesium contents were also high, while
phosphorus content was very low, as was sodium
content, a positive point for its effect on blood
pressure (Table III).
Table IV shows among antioxidants vitamins,
high concentrations of b-carotene (pro-vitamin A)
and vitamin E and very low values of vitamin C,
except in part for S. minor.
All four species showed excellent b-carotene
content; in fact, 100 g of B. perennis, C. juncea and
S. minor contained, respectively, 60%, 51% and 80%
of the daily recommended intake, while B. erucago
exceeded it by about 40%.
There were also notable concentrations of
vitamin E: 100 g of B. perennis, B. erucago, C. juncea
and S. minor contained 46%, 44%, 42% and 78%,
respectively, of daily recommended intake in a diet of
about 2000 kcal, with about 17 g of polyunsaturated
fatty acids. On the other hand, there was very low
vitamin C content (undetermined in two species)
Discussion
This study showed that gathering and consuming
edible wild plants are still very much alive in Umbria
as one aspect of an age-old ethnobotanical folk
tradition (see Table I), although in most cases their
nutritional value is unknown. It was found that the
quality and quantity of the various components of the
four species under examination could make an
excellent contribution to balancing and rationalising
diet and preventing metabolic pathologies. This
study demonstrates how edible wild plants contain
many of the so-called minor nutrients (because they
are found in small quantities), such as polyphenols
and antioxidising vitamins which can further
improve a diet which is already balanced, thus
offering protection against degenerative processes.
Furthermore, various authors have shown how some
species could be exploited in breeding programmes
to develop genotypes with putative positive effects on
human health, thanks to their high tocopherol, fatty
acid and phytosterol contents (Scialabba et al. 2010),
not to mention anticancer, antibacterial and antiviral
properties with possible applications in the field of
medicine (Minutolo et al. 2012). And these new
applications are possible thanks to the presence of
adequate antioxidant components that can combat
Table II. Chemical composition (g/100 g of edible parts) and energy content.
Water
Protein
Lipids
Carbohydrates
Ashes
Dietary fibre
Energy (kcal)
Energy (kj)
B. perennis
B. erucago
C. juncea
S. minor
84.2 ^ 0.93
1.4 ^ 0.05
0.4 ^ 0.02
1.0 ^ 0.04
5.3 ^ 0.13
7.6 ^ 0.26
13.0
54.4
83.1 ^ 1.00
2.2 ^ 0.07
0.4 ^ 0.03
3.0 ^ 0.10
2.9 ^ 0.16
8.2 ^ 0.29
24.0
100.4
87.8 ^ 0.88
1.9 ^ 0.07
0.5 ^ 0.04
2.0 ^ 0.08
1.8 ^ 0.11
5.8 ^ 0.32
19.6
82.0
76.2 ^ 1.30
3.8 ^ 0.13
0.8 ^ 0.04
6.0 ^ 0.22
2.2 ^ 0.09
10.5 ^ 0.41
44.9
187.9
Note: S. minor has the highest protein content while B. perennis has the highest ash content.
8
A. Ranfa et al.
Table III. Mineral content in wild plants (mg/100 g per edible parts).
Iron
Calcium
Phosphorus
Sodium
Potassium
Magnesium
B. perennis
B. erucago
C. juncea
S. minor
40.8
444
18.3
56
2053
123
24.1
425
18.2
6.1
2209
216
4.9
159
12.7
3.8
1277
100
5.1
283
21.9
21
967
282
Note: B. perennis has the highest iron and calcium contents.
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Table IV. Concentrations of b-carotene (pro-vitamin A), vitamin E and vitamin C.
B. perennis
B. erucago
C. juncea
S. minor
2537
423
3101
1.3
49
5774
962
2942
, LQ
86
2134
356
2728
, LQ
23
3339
556
5226
9.2
258
b-Carotene (mg/100 g), m
Vitamin A (mg Ret Eq/100 g)
Vitamin E (mg/100 g), m
Vitamin C (mg/100 g), m
Total polyphenols (mg/100 g), m
the effect of free radicals. Since, at present, the
amount necessary to maintain this equilibrium is
estimated to be about 5000 ORAC units and
considering that health authorities recommend the
consumption at least five portions of fruit and
vegetables a day (Istituto Nazionale di Ricerca per gli
Alimenti e la Nutrizione 2003), the wild plants dealt
with in this study could make a notable contribution
towards this objective.
Many of the macro and micro nutrients contained
in these wild plants merit more attention, but the lack
of an adequate national and regional nutrient
database limits available knowledge, which is, at
present, much less than that relevant to cultivated
species (Vincetti et al. 2008). In addition to
antioxidant vitamins, these plants are rich in phenols
and other compounds which increase their antioxidant capacity. Therefore, further studies are
essential to analyse total antioxidant capacity and
promote knowledge about them with a view to
commercialisation. With the introduction of new
pre-packed foods (Bhattarai et al. 2009), knowledge
of traditional uses of edible wild plants is disappearing in many parts of the world. This is why this
research aims at focusing attention on these species
and their importance for human nutrition, as
knowledge and rediscovery of recipes in human and
animal diet could represent an economic potential
(Guarrera et al. 2006).
It is well known that wild plants continue to make
up a significant part of the world food basket and
their importance will increase due to increased
pressure resulting from greater agricultural production (Bharucha & Pretty 2010).
Conclusion
Thanks to their antioxidant properties, it would
certainly be worthwhile to foster further study of
edible wild plants and to promote commercialisation
campaigns, particularly in view of the growing
demand for natural antioxidants by the food
industry. Human health in general would benefit
greatly from a reconsideration of these plants because
they represent a naturally occurring, easy to obtain
source of powerful vegetable antioxidants.
According to an FAO estimate, wild plants are
part of the diet of one billion people worldwide, but
as no official markets exist their commercial value has
never been evaluated, although their sale represents
an important way of integrating income in many
countries.
Projects to rediscover traditional foods may
increase wild plant consumption. The FAO recognises that nutrition and biodiversity converge
Table V. ORAC method results: S. minor shows the highest values of total polyphenols.
ORAC (mmol TE/100 g)
B. perennis
B. erucago
C. juncea
S. minor
221
529
427
904
Uses and nutraceutical aspects of wild plants
towards a common goal of food safety and
sustainable development and that wild species play
a key role in global nutrition safety (FAO 2009).
Furthermore, a renewed interest in edible wild
plants would stimulate the study of local flora and
spread knowledge to preserve local customs and
traditions. More extensive knowledge could lead to
improved diet in many areas of the Mediterranean
area and the Developing World, and in general
encourage and promote the use of these species.
Downloaded by [University of Perugia] at 01:32 26 February 2013
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank the Fondazione
Cassa di Risparmio of Perugia for making this
research possible.
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